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History of Meteorology

The word “meteorology” was coined by Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle, who named one of his research books Meteorologica. This early work deals with general sciences of the earth: elements, geology, hydrology, wind, seas, and of course, the weather. In today’s terms, the word meteorology designates a full-blown science. It is meant to understand the dynamics of the atmosphere and to forecast both our local weather and large-scale weather-related phenomena like thunderstorms and hurricanes.

Ancient Meteorological Science

Weather forecasting is not a new activity and has probably been practiced – with more or less accuracy – since the beginning of time. History records dating back to antiquity contain numerous examples of weather prediction methods based on the close monitoring of surrounding elements.

Meteorology

The first indicator used in meteorology is undoubtedly the sky because the sky cover and the nature of the clouds that make it up can provide clues as to the coming weather and temperatures. Also important is the wind, which is closely related to temperatures and is often associated with rain. Birds and other animals (especially on a farm) are also known to give indications about the upcoming weather.

Scientists all over the world (especially in Europe, China and the Arab world) have, since antiquity, tried to understand meteorological phenomena like rain and wind. Several instruments to measure wind power, precipitation and humidity were even invented as early as the 15th century.

Scientific Breakthroughs in Meteorology

The 17th century is when several discoveries tipped the scales in favor of a scientific meteorology. Galileo Galilei invented a device to measure temperature, and Blaise Pascal discovered that atmospheric pressure was linked to altitude. The most important discovery, however, is probably the invention of the barometer by Evangelista Torricelli. The barometer – still in use today – indicates changes in atmospheric pressures that are usually linked to upcoming changes in the weather.

Meanwhile, other methods also evolved. Meteorology has a lot to do with cycles and their analyses, which is what Fernando II de Medici wanted to prove. In 1654 he undertook a very ambitious program meant to record weather patterns in various Italian and European cities in order to compile data and analyze them.

Those breakthroughs (among others) were followed in the 18th century by others who took the science to a new level. Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the modern mercury-based thermometer, and Daniel Bernoulli devised theories about hydrodynamics that greatly helped understand atmospheric changes.

Modern-Day Meteorology

Once the theory of atmospheric pressures and thermodynamics were in place, no real changes in the approach were necessary to understand meteorology. In more recent times the focus has been more on improving meteorological tools in order to attain better accuracy levels. Technology provided a tremendous boost to meteorology in two different ways. The first one is the ability to communicate results and analyses in a timely fashion, which was made possible with the invention of the telegraph. The second one is the ability to probe the skies – first using balloons, then satellites and radars.

Meteorology

Meteorology has become a permanent fixture in our everyday lives. Dedicated channels and mobile devices provide us with live updates on weather forecasts. The science is still evolving and is a crucial element of the economy with so many industries like civil aviation and agriculture that depend on it.

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History of Liberia

The Republic of Liberia has a very complex recent history. The country is ideally located along the African coast, with Sierra Leone, Guinea and Ivory Coast as its direct neighbors. The Republic of Liberia is a relatively young nation that was born in 1822 when freed American slaves arrived and formed the country. Prior to that the land itself hadn’t really been claimed as a European colony or as a recognized country.

Liberia – Fact Sheet

The Republic of Liberia is a country located in West Africa along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is known geographically for its beaches and equatorial forest. Its capital, Monrovia, is home to a little over 1 million people, or 29% of the total population of 3.5 million.

Liberia

It is a predominantly Christian country with a large ethnic diversity (close to 20 different ethnicities), and Liberia’s official language is English. The country generates a GDP of roughly $840MM, which comes mostly from agriculture and, to a lesser extent, from industrial activities. (Liberia’s major resources include coffee, cocoa, rice and minerals.)

19th Century – Arrival of The American Settlers

The American Colonization Society, an American organization, launched an initiative meant to give freed African-American slaves the opportunity to go back to their roots in Africa. The exodus began in 1822, and about 10,000 people arrived in Liberia (“Liberia” means “freedom” in Latin.) to colonize it.

These “Americo-Liberians” settled in, and in 1847 – after a little over 20 years – formed the Republic of Liberia, whose first elected president was Joseph Jenkins Roberts. Americo-Liberians brought their American governing culture and way of life and settled largely in the newly founded capital of Monrovia. Monrovia was named after the then-President of the United States James Monroe, who was reportedly very supportive of the creation of Liberia.

The integration of native Liberians into the new society was made more difficult by cultural differences and initial discrimination against them. They were, for instance, refused voting rights until the beginning of the 20th century. The United States gave its support to the budding country in order to help it establish a viable economy. However, ethnic rivalries in particular significantly hampered the country’s economic and political development.

20th Century – Development and Civil Wars

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Republic of Liberia had stabilized geographically and settled its border issues with Sierra Leone. The economy, however, had hit rock bottom due to the country’s mounting debts and its ensuing isolation from trading partners. In 1926, Firestone, an American rubber producer, obtained the rights to a large plantation, which helped the Liberian economy bounce back.

Liberia map

Liberia then continued its economic development – although not without hiccups – until the 1980s, after which tensions between internal political groups plunged the country into its first civil war. In 1997, Charles Taylor, a civil war leader, was elected president. For six years Taylor served his own interests with no real regard for the country’s drained economy. A second civil war broke out in 1999 and resulted in the ousting of Taylor by an international coalition in 2003.

Ellen Sirleaf, a Harvard-educated former corporate executive, won the national elections in 2005 to become the country’s first female president and is in charge of overseeing the re-building of Liberia.

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History of Alaska

Alaska, the 49th State, has a rich history behind it. From the Paleolithic period to the present, Alaska’s natural beauty, and its rich resources have been the land’s bane and boon to its natives. The Russians, Spanish, British, and Americans have at one time or another exploited Alaska’s otters for their fur, and the land for its oil.

Paleolithic Inhabitants

Alaska’s original inhabitants were of Asiatic descent. By that era, the natives of Alaska already had an organized society, which was segregated into three classes of people: the Honorables, which included the respected whalers and elders; the Commoners; and the Slaves. Their society was known to practice mummification at death just like the Egyptians. Occasionally, a slave was killed in honor of their dead, which means they also practice human sacrifice.

alaska

Alaska’s Discovery

Alaska’s discovery happened in 1741 by a Danish seafarer aboard a Russian ship. The sailors hunted the animals and took their furs back to the Old World. The people were amazed by the quality of the furs that they were sought after. Because of the demand for more furs, Alaska became a favorite hunting and trading post. Catherine the Great, who was the monarch during this period, urged the hunters to treat the Native Aleuts with compassion. However, the hunters’ obsessive quest for furs made this impossible.

The Spanish Expeditions

Alaska eventually became part of Russia and this did not sit well with the Spanish monarch, King Charles the III. Between 1774 and 1791, King Charles sent out Spanish expeditions to the area. His efforts to claim even a part of Alaska for the glory of Spain were thwarted at every opportunity by the Russian armies. Eventually, King Charles abandoned his attempts at getting a piece of the Alaskan peninsula from the Russians. He decided both the Russians and the Natives were too formidable for the Spanish.

alaska

British Subjects

During this same period, the British also attempted to get a piece of the Alaskan territory. The possible uses of Alaska’s sea otters were too profitable for British navigators to ignore. Captain James Cook and his crew set sail to explore the Alaskan territory in 1778. When they returned to England, they showed off their beautiful fur coats that were taken from Alaska’s freshly killed otters. Upon seeing these fur coats, the British decided to send out more expeditions to Alaska. As a result, the town of Wrangell became subject to British rule.

How Alaska Became Part of America

The United States purchased Alaska from the Russians for 7.2 million dollars in April 9, 1867. It did not become a state of the United States until July 7, 1958 when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act. On that day, Alaska became the 49th state of the United States of America.

All through the period when Alaska was a part of America, it primarily served as a rich source of gold. Many miners, opportunists, and explorers from all over the States migrated to Alaska because of the gold rush. Eventually, they settled there and made the wintery land their home.

Alaska Flag

Later, oil was discovered at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast. A proposal for constructing a pipeline to distribute oil to the other states was originally denied because there was a land dispute in that area with Native Americans. Unless the dispute was settled, no pipeline would be built.

The discovery of “black gold” together with the claims of Native Americans to take back the land that was originally theirs led to the signing of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. The Act required the Native Americans to relinquish their claims on that particular area in exchange for 44 million acres of land in other parts of Alaska. In addition to that, they were also awarded 963 million dollars.

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A Brief History of Hawaii

Admired for its paradise islands and rich cultural history, Hawaii continues to seduce tourists to revisit it again and again. Its beaches are famous surfer havens that international surfing champions frequent. The state also boasts a fearsome chain of volcanoes because of its location in the Pacific. Aside from that, Hawaii is a rich source of natural resources such as coconuts, bananas, and sugarcane products. More than the beaches, volcanoes and the natural resources, however, Hawaii takes pride in its people, the Kanaka Maoli – a warm and happy group who has managed a kingdom even before the British colonized them.

How Hawaii Was Inhabited

The Hawaiian Archipelago has the most isolated inhabited islands in the world. The islands are located almost 2400 miles from California, 3800 miles from Japan, and 2400 miles from the Marquesas Islands. The last group of islands is believed to be the place from which the first settlers, the Menehune, arrived in Hawaii around 300 to 400 AD. This settlement was later displaced by a group of settlers from Tahiti. Under the Multiple Migration Theory, the first settlement of the Menehune people was overthrown by a group of taller and physically stronger people from Tahiti.

hawaii

How Hawaii Was Discovered

The isolation of Hawaii from the rest of the world is the reason why it was also one of the last places discovered by the New World. In 1778, while searching for the fabled Northwest Passage between Alaska and Asia, Captain James Cook and his crew stumbled upon a group of islands so far north in the Pacific. He named them the Sandwich Islands. After Cook, many Europeans and Americans explored the islands.

How The Kamehamehas Changed Hawaii

Hundreds of thousands of Kanaka Maoli, the first people of Hawaii, lived in the islands in a highly organized, self-sufficient, subsistent social system. Since the first contact with explorers and missionaries, however, this number has been drastically reduced to less than 40,000 people.

The reduction in numbers was caused partly by war, and partly by diseases. The Kanaka Maoli were originally healthy, but unprepared for the diseases of the New World such as smallpox. Aside from that, the peoples of Hawaii who were divided before as Kingdoms began to fight more aggressively with the availability of western weapons such as swords and guns.

Hawaii Beach

However, thirty-two years after the arrival of Captain James Cook and his crew, Hawaii became united into one Great Kingdom under Kamehameha I with the help of a large army and foreign weapons.

His son, Kamehameha II, succeeded him when he died. Kamehameha II is also named Liholiho and like his father, changed Hawaii not only politically, but also socially. In his reign, he eliminated the kapu (“taboo”) system and broke one of them by eating with his stepmother and other women of chiefly rank. Men and women eating together is one of the kapus forbidden in the old system and punishable by death.

After Liholiho, Kamehameha III continued to carry the torch for the family’s propensity for making evolutionary changes with Hawaii’s politics and governance arena. Under his rule, Kamehameha III issued the Hawaiian Declaration of Rights and promulgated the Constitution for the Hawaiian Islands, changing the governance of Hawaii from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy.

hawaii-2

After the third Kamehameha, two more followed to rule Hawaiian monarchy. When the fifth Kamehameha, Lot, was dying, he tried to ask his daughter to ascend to the throne, but she refused and chose instead to live a private life with her British husband. Despite this refusal, a woman was able to rule the land. Queen Lili’uokalani was the only woman and the last monarch to rule Hawaii before the Kingdom was overthrown by foreigners.

Hawaii’s Annexation with and Statehood in the United States

After the monarchy’s line of ascendancy ended in 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown by the European and American merchants and traders. Hawaii became an independent republic from 1894 to 1898, when it was annexed to the United States as a territory. It became the 50th state of America when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill on March 18, 1959 allowing its statehood. After statehood, Hawaii quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy.

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History of the Gaza Strip

How could such a small piece of land controlled by formidable forces and hemmed in by the Mediterranean Sea on one side become the source of grief and fear for so many people? Gaza Strip is just 25 miles long and 4 to 7.5 miles wide. It is a small strip of land in Israel named after its main city, Gaza.

Its history, however, is full of bloodshed. It is currently controlled by Hamas, an organization that took over the de facto government in the Gaza Strip from the Palestinian Authority. It violently removed the Palestinian Authority’s security forces and civil servants from the Gaza Strip in 2007.

Crossing The Green Line

The Gaza Strip as it is known today was the product of the Armistice Agreements between Egypt and Israel in 1949. The agreements included the recognition of the border, referred to as the Green Line, between Egypt and Gaza. Except for four months of Israeli occupation during the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt occupied the Strip from 1949 until 1967. All through their occupation, Egypt never annexed the Gaza Strip. Instead, Egypt treated the Gaza Strip as a territory and assigned a military governor to administer it.

Although the population was largely Egyptian before Israel occupied Gaza, the fighting between the Arab and Jew forces forced many Palestines to flee Israel and settle in Gaza Strip. The Palestinians living inside the Gaza Strip were issued All-Palestine passports. This ended in 1959, when the President of Egypt, Gamal Abdul Nasser ended the All-Palestine government by decree.

The 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty settled the international border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt. Egypt renounced all territorial claims to the region beyond the international border. However, Gaza Strip’s final status and other relations between Israel and Palestinians were not dealt with in the treaty.

Gaza Strip Map

Wars and Treaties

The Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula were occupied by Israeli troops during the November 1956 Sinai campaign. Because of international pressure, the Israeli troops were forced to withdraw, but they occupied the Strip again in June 1967, after the Six-Day War.

During the occupation, the Israelis built 21 settlements in the Strip, which occupied 20% of the territory. They were built for ideological and security reasons. Until 1994, the Gaza Strip remained under Israel’s military occupation, which was responsible for the maintenance of civil facilities and services.

After the treaty with Egypt, Israel entered into an agreement with the Palestinian Authority. This was known as the Oslo Accords, which transferred governmental authority to the Palestinian Authority in phases. Except for the settlements and the military areas, much of the Gaza Strip came under Palestinian control.

Gaza Strip West Bank

The governance of the Palestinian Authority under Arafat suffered from serious mismanagement and corruption. Protest, civil unrest, and bombings plagued the area. Palestinian guerillas bombard the Israeli border with rebellious activities in the Second Intifada of September 2000.

Gaza Strip Disengagement

In 2005, the Israeli government implemented a disengagement plan from the Gaza Strip. Under the plan, all Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip and in the West Bank, including the Israeli-Palestinian Erez Industrial Zone, were dismantled. On 12 September 2005 the Israeli cabinet formally declared an end to Israeli military rule in the Gaza Strip.

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History of Philippine Literature

The Philippines is an island country in Southeast Asia bordering the Philippine Sea, the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Celebes Sea. People from the Philippines speak a language that formed within the island group known as Tagalog, although from the early 1500s the islands were a Spanish colony, and in the first half of the 20th century the islands were controlled by the United States of America. The Philippines is the 11th most populous country in the world.

In common with other aboriginal societies the Philippine islands have a rich oral history of legends, fables, and poetry that dates from antiquity, although sadly much has been forgotten amongst urban dwellers and is in most cases only retained by older generations who are the subject of a frantic project by universities and cultural awareness groups to put into writing or other recorded media their memories and stories told to them by their own parents and grand-parents.

Being of Austronesian origins many of the ancient literature of the Philippines stems from ancestral worship and legends brought with the first settlers from Taiwan, the first homeland of the Austronesian people. These ancient stories about the gods and heroes are shared in the most part with stories that are common to people from the pacific islands, New Zealand, Indonesia, and Madagascar however the Philippine islands have been settled for much longer allowing home-grown versions to develop. A favorite fable with Philippine children is the story of the Monkey and the Turtle.

Philippine Images

“A monkey and a turtle were good friends and lived close by to each other. One day the turtle suggested he and the monkey should go for a walk, and a little while later they happened across a banana plant. Deciding to keep the plant they cut it into two pieces and planted them in their gardens, but the monkey’s piece was from the bottom of the plant and didn’t grow. Turtle had more luck with the top of the plant which grew straight and strong. A few weeks later the turtle went to visit the monkey, and seeing him looking sad asked why. After the monkey had explained his loss the turtle suggested the monkey help him pick the fruit of his own banana plant.

The monkey readily agreed but on reaching the fruit at the top of the tree proceeded to eat it all. Turtle pleaded with his friend for some of the fruit but the monkey only threw the empty peel to turtle. Wanting to teach his friend a lesson the turtle placed large thorns around the base of the tree and bid his friend goodnight. When monkey descended to go home his belly was too full and he fell directly onto the thorns. Angry at this the monkey set out the following morning to find the turtle and punish him.

Philippine literature

Near the river monkey found the turtle and holding him the air told turtle he was to be roasted over the fire and made into turtle soup. The turtle being cunning agreed that this was a fitting punishment, and was much preferable to being thrown in the river. The monkey sensing a worse punishment for the turtle immediately threw him into the river not knowing that turtles are good swimmers. A while later the turtle surfaced holding a large fish in his jaws and exclaiming at how wonderful the taste was. The monkey asked his friend to share the fish with him but turtle retorted instead that the monkey was just too lazy to get his own. Not to be outdone the monkey jumped into the river and drowned.”

The moral of the story is that one should always share everything with one’s friends, a defining nature of Filipino people.

Written literature existed prior to the beginning of the Spanish colonial period however Spain was in the grip of the inquisition and church doctrine decreed that existing Philippine written records be destroyed, including the uniquely Philippine alphabet, all of which was to be replaced by Catholic teachings in Spanish only. The passion of Christ was forced on indigenous communities and those who were to become part of the colonial ruling elite were taught latin script.

The only surviving documents written in the ancient Tagalog alphabet, known as Baybayin are not works of literature, for example the Lagune Copperplate Inscription from 900AD which is a receipt for payment of a debt, and the Doctrina Christiana of 1593. In fact literature in the Philippines in written form is only known from times well into the colonial period. Many of the works written in the early colonial period were religious in nature extolling the virtues of Christianity to a population that had previously followed local polytheism.

Chants and poems that could be read or memorized for use in church or in local festivities were actively encouraged, the “Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala” by Fernando Bagonbanta in 1605 contained many lyrics that could be sung. In 1640 an ancient epic, Biag ni Lam-ang was published by Pedro Buceneg, a blind Filipino poet who related the ancient fable to a monk from his local parish. 1705 saw Gaspar Aquino de Belen write a series of quintillas that were more subdued and serious in nature than those of his predecessor Bagonbanta, emphasizing the solemnity of the life of Christ. These are still in use in the Philippines today.

Until this time, and thru the first half of the 20th century most Philippine poetry and literature was written in Spanish, Tagalog being frowned upon as a base language not worthy of great works of writing. One of the Philippines greatest writers of any era francisco Balagtas, a man likened with William Shakespeare for the prolific and profound nature of his works, refused to write in Spanish for which he was persecuted during his lifetime. His greatest work, Florante at Laura, also written in Tagalog tells the story of a man and a woman in the time of the Greek Empire.

The Philippine national hero, José Rizal is considered the father of indigenous Philippine literature even though his works were written and published in Spanish. He was also the first to look outside of church doctrine for his inspiration, although his works “Noli me Tangere”, and “El filibusterismo” published in 1887 and 1891 respectively do deal with the corruption of the priests and lack of equality of Philippine people. José Rizal wasn’t just a revolutionary, he was also a very intelligent man who considered Philippine independence to be essential for the survival of the Tagalog language and the continuing development of the islands which he considered were being systemically mismanaged at the expense of the majority Tagalogs who were considered second class citizens.

Jozé Rizal thru his life inspired a great many Filipinos not just in literature, but also as a model for civilized living. Rizal himself had studied Medicine and Philosophy earning multiple degrees from several European universities. He also spoke at least 22 languages. Sadly his works of literature were limited to just two novels, the second of which is a sequel owing to his execution by firing squad in 1896 at the age of 35 after being convicted of fermenting revolutionary ideas.

Philippine Writers

Following Rizal’s death the Philippines came under US control, initially as a colony and then later as a Commonwealth associated with the US, a period that saw the revolutionary struggle continue unabated. Spanish became the chosen language of early 20th century writers and poets as a simple act of defiance against the US, with notable authors such as Epifanio de los Reyes, Claro Recto, Vicente Sotto, Teodoro Kalaw amongst them.

By the beginning of World War 2 English had become the preferred language of literature. The Japanese invasion and occupation saw a brief flirtation with writing in Tagalog since Japanese forces were suspicious that Philippine spies would use English to pass secret messages to US forces. Whilst writing in Tagalog has always been considered true Philippine literature and poetry it has always been seen as somehow local, and not intended for foreign audiences.

By way of contrast, writing in English has allowed Philippine authors to expand their horizons and have their writing published in a global market, in which many have excelled, to the extent that short story writing and poetry is a major cultural export from the Philippines. Whilst professional writing in the Philippines is nowhere near as advanced as other English speaking nations, several awards are offered annually that recognize excellence, including the Republic Cultural Heritage Awards, the Pro Patris Awards for Literature, and the National Artist Awards.

Contemporary and late 20th century writers who have gained critical acclaim include Resil Mojares, Alfred Yuson, Jose Dalisay, Ian Casocot, Cirilo Bautista, Marjorie Evasco.

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History of Hong Kong

Hong Kong has become one of the most successful islands in the world. Its growth as a financial center has blossomed over the last century and today, its future seems as bright as ever. While it became a dependent territory of the United Kingdom in 1842, since 1997, it has once again been brought back in the fold of China. Today, Hong Kong continues to enjoy growth and prosperity under China’s one country, two systems policy.

Hong Kong Flag

The Island of Hong Kong

The island of Hong Kong is officially known as: Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Hong Kong is located in the southern part of China and is found in the South China Sea. While the island of Hong Kong is small (a land mass of about 427 square miles), the population is quite high, with the island inhabitants reaching over 7 million. This gives Hong Kong one of the highest population densities in the world. Hong Kong is known as one of Asia’s preeminent financial markets and it ranks as one of the most successful and important financial, cultural and communications hubs in the world. While Chinese inhabitants make up the vast majority of those living on Hong Kong, there are quite a few expatriates of all nationalities living in Hong Kong as well. In fact, Hong Kong is known for its cosmopolitan ambiance.

Hong Kong Island Map

The Fragrant Harbor

Hong Kong comes from the Cantonese word Hakka which means fragrant harbor. The original harbor of Hong Kong is now known as Aberdeen Harbor. While the Chinese has settled the island of Hong Kong for millennia, in Europe, the first mention of Hong Kong was recorded by the Portuguese explorer Jorge Alvares who arrived in 1513. The name Hong Kong was used officially for the first time in 1842, when China and Britain signed the treaty of Nanking.

Hong Kong Harbor - Panoramic View

An Important Trading Post of Britain

In the mid 1800′s Hong Kong was used by the British to an extent for trading opium among other commodities. In 1839, the Qing Dynasty’s refusal to no longer import Opium- a dangerous narcotic that had immense social and financial affects on China’s population led China and Britain into the First Opium War. In 1842, Hong Kong became occupied by Britain and under the Treaty of Nanking, the British established a Crown Colony and the founding of Victoria City. In the coming years and during the Second Opium War, Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island was also ceded to Britain and in 1898, Britain obtained a 99 year lease of Hong Kong, at that time known as the New Territories. For this 99 year period leading up to 1997, Hong Kong remained in the control of the United Kingdom

Hong Kong During World War II

During the early part of the 20th century Hong Kong played a major role in Asia as a center of trade and it grew in leaps and bounds financially and culturally. However, during World War II, the Empire of Japan was able to drive the British off the island in the Battle of Hong Kong and took control of Hong Kong as a colony on December 25, 1941.

During the initial invasion and following occupation of Hong Kong, the civilians of the island suffered enormously. Food shortages were wide spread and hyper inflation was experienced by all since all currency needed to be converted to military notes. In fact conditions were so bad that from 1971 to 1945 when the control of Hong Kong returned back to the British after Japan surrendered, almost half the population of civilians who lived in Hong Kong died.

Hong Kong World War 2

Hong Kong Recovers After World War II

After World War II, the population of Hong Kong quickly recovered due to an influx of migrants from the mainland of China- mainly due to the Chinese Civil War and then the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China. In addition, due to the communist take over of the mainland, many companies shifted their operations to Hong Kong. Over the years, industry such as textiles and manufacturing grew. Not only was labor fairly cheap, but Hong Kong being mostly built on a capitalist philosophy made it easy for businesses and entrepreneurs to operate. And while Hong Kong grew economically, China became more isolated, pretty much leaving Hong Kong as the only link between the world and the Mainland. Today, Hong Kong is known less for its manufacturing and more for its service based industry- specifically in finance and banking sectors.

The United Kingdom Hands Over Control to China

The change over from British to China’s control took place on midnight on July 1, 1997. However, both the United Kingdom and the People’s Republic of China were planning the transition close to 20 years before then. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration was agreed upon. This document stipulated that Hong Kong would be governed as a special administrative region for at least the next 50 years beginning in 1997. It would retain its laws and to a large extent its autonomy. This agreement was instrumental in making sure that Hong Kong would continue to succeed and wouldn’t face severe disruptions when the transition took place.

Hong Kong Night Life

One Country, Two Systems

Today, Hong Kong is ruled by the principle of one country, two systems. Based upon the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong continues to enjoy a wide degree of autonomy except in matters of defense and foreign affairs and is ruled by Basic Law, which is outlined in Hong Kong’s constitution. Under Basic Law, the people of Hong Kong continue to enjoy an economic system based on capitalism, a guarantee of human rights and freedoms and a government with a large representation of democratically elected officials.

Hong Kong continues to be a powerhouse economically and culturally in Asia and for many the future of Hong Kong is bright.

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History of Tocobaga Indians

The Tocobaga Indians were a native American tribe of people who lived in the vicinity of Tampa Bay in Florida, with archeological remains found in St Petersberg, Tampa, Safety Harbor, and surrounding districts. The tribe were a maritime tribe who subsisted on fish and whatever they could forage in the locality, or trade with distant tribes. The Tocobaga had a highly developed social structure based around chiefdoms, with institutionalized social inequality between the various classes, similar to the caste system found in other cultures such as medieval Europe and Hindu India.

Around 12,000 to 14,000 years ago Indian people in North America moved into the Florida peninsula, these people were nomadic and rarely established a permanent presence being hunter gatherers. By 4,000 years ago native American Indian tribes started to build settlements along the coastal areas, particularly in the south. Around 550 BC Manasota culture was becoming established and developing religious customs that continued until their last known settlements disappeared sometime in the 8th or 9th centuries.

Nobody knows what happened to the Manasota culture, were they absorbed by Mississippian tribes who moved into the area, or did they die out leaving their former homes abandoned? The Tampa Bay area had previously been the northern limits of the Manasota culture but around the same time as Manasota culture disappeared the Tocobaga Indians started building cities and settlements around the Tampa Bay area and establishing a culture the survived thru to Spanish colonial times.

Tocobaga- Mounds

Tocobaga Mounds

Centered on the area now known as Safety Harbor City, the city lends its name to the Indian culture that developed there from 800 AD, the Safety Harbor culture. Tocobaga Indians and the Safety Harbor culture are therefore considered by many to be the same, although it is incorrect to use the two names interchangeably since outlying tribes that weren’t members of the Tocobaga Indians were also part of the Safety Harbor culture, characterized by the building of truncated pyramidal mounds on which were built the chief’s house and often the chiefdom’s temple.

The Tocobagan Indians are believed to have been mostly peaceful although their society did practice slavery and a person generally remained in their caste with little chance of improvement to higher status. Slaves were obtained thru raids on other tribes and the taking of prisoners, and evidence suggests that each chiefdom would only allow outsiders to live amongst them if a marriage had been arranged between a nobleman and a woman from another chiefdom.

Tocobagan villages were highly structured, always being built around a central plaza which in larger settlements would feature the pyramidal mound upon which would be built the chief’s house and the village temple. Below the mound, and around the edges of the plaza were the homes of the village nobility. The homes of other villagers would be on the outskirts of the village. Chiefs in Tocobagan tribes were considered holy, akin to gods who demanded absolute respect of their subjects, and it is believed the building of mounds was designed to reinforce their position by forcing the other villagers to look upwards whenever the chief appeared.

By the early 1500s Tocobaga tribes people started to notice ships of the Spanish explorers on their horizon, and in 1528 the first contact between Tocobaga Indians and Spain with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez. Having been appointed governor of Florida de Narváez embarked on a mission to subjugate the Native Indians. History remembers that de Narvéaz sailed with five ships and 300 men landing near Tampa Bay. Battles broke out almost immediately with massive losses on both sides. Pánfilo de Narváez and about half of his men managed to get past the Tocobaga before heading inland, although fortune was not on their side, with de Narváez and almost all his men perishing whilst trying to return to their ships.

Tocobaga Indians - Villages Location

Another explorer, Hernando de Soto visited the Tampa Bay area in 1539 and made a detailed assessment of the villages and tribes of the area. His visit noted only small villages and chiefdoms which would have been no threat to an expeditionary force, although de Soto did at least give us the names of several other small ribes living on the southern boundary of the Tocobaga domain, the Guacozo, Vicela, Tocaste, Luca, Uzita, Mocoso, and Pohoy.

In subsequent years the Tocabaga and the previously mentioned villages suffered terrible diseases brought in by the Europeans and which their immune systems were ill equipped to deal with, and drastically reducing their population. So weakened were the Tocobaga that in 1567 when Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 20 of his men and a war party from the much more powerful Calusa descended on the Tocobaga who were at war with the Calusa, the Tocobaga were only able to call on 1500 men to defend their main settlement.

The Tocobaga were the dominant Indian tribe in the Tampa Bay area, yet 1500 men would have been no match against battle seasoned conquistadors, but fortunately for the Tocobaga Spain was in no mood to fight having expanded rapidly thru the Americas and facing native rebellions in almost every colony. Despite disease and illness, or perhaps because of it, the Tocobaga and Pohoy nations regularly raided Spanish settlements on their borders leading to moves by Spain to crush them once and for all in 1612, an event that lives on in infamy for its abject failure to achieve its goal.

Tocobaga Indians - Fishermen

A little over a hundred years later (1718), Spanish missionaries had managed to convert most Indian people from St Augustine to the Tampa Bay, although tribal prejudices were hard to completely eradicate, the Pohoy and Tocobaga being at war after the Pohoy had allied themselves with the Calusa several years before. War with England to the north, and France to the west had plagued the Spanish colony in Florida and massacres of Indians allied with Spain or who had been converted to Christianity had effectively destroyed most Indian tribes, and by the 1760s the Tocobaga were amongst the very small number of Indians remaining.

It is a sad indictment on the European colonization of Florida that in 1763 when Spain finally agreed to give up its claim and evacuate all Spaniards to Cuba, the last of the Tocobaga went with them and effectively ceased to exist as a people. Native Americans currently living in Florida for the most part migrated to the state after the Spanish and their Native Indian subjects had left.

Tocobaga Indians - Boys Representation

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The History of the Eiffel Tower

One of the most prominent landmarks in France is of course the Eiffel Tower. In fact, it is one of the most recognizable structures in the world. While the Eiffel Tower is an iconic image and recognized as purely French, many don’t quite know the entire history of this landmark. Here is the fascinating story behind the Eiffel Tower.

The Eiffel Tower was originally built during the years of 1887 to 1889 for the Exposition Universalle, which is known as the World’s Fair. The World’s Fare specifically took place in Paris to commemorate the centennial of the French Revolution which brought democracy to France. The Eiffel Tower which was designed by architect Gustav Eiffel was positioned as the arch gateway for the World’s Fair and continues to be located at the Champ de Mars which is next to the Seine River.

The Eiffel Tower was inaugurated on March 31, 1889; however it was opened to the public on May 6th of that year. Just an interesting fact regarding this infamous tower is that at first, Gustav Eiffel wanted to build his tower in the city of Barcelona, Spain for the Universal Exposition in 1888. However the city of Barcelona thought at the time, the tower was too expensive and did not fit the style of the city. The city hall of Barcelona voted against the proposal, ultimately sending Gustav Eiffel to submit his plans to the city of Paris.

Eiffel Tower Construction

Today, the Eiffel Tower is one of the many aesthetic beauties in Paris, however from the original outset of planning and construction to several years after the Exposition Universalle, the Eiffel Tower was panned and viewed by many as an eye sore- which would be seen as sacrilegious today.

The Eiffel Tower was constructed over a 3 year period- 1887-1889. With the help of about 300 men, the tower was constructed and today stands at a total height of 1,063 feet high (324 meters). This includes a 79 foot (24 m) antenna added years later. It is about 81 stories of a conventional skyscraper. In fact, from its initial construction till 1930, when the Chrysler Building was constructed, the Eiffel Tower was the tallest man made structure in the world. The Chrysler Building was a total of 1,047 ft (319 meters), but the Eiffel Tower did not have the addition of the radio antenna.

Materials Used to Construct the Eiffel Tower

The Eiffel Tower is constructed out of a pure iron metal named puddled iron. A total of over 18,000 pieces of iron was used in the construction. These pieces of iron were held together with over 2.5 million rivets. The iron used in the construction weighs about 7,300 tonnes. However, this is not the entire weight of the Eiffel Tower, the gross weight including the platforms- there are three totals over 10,000 tonnes. During the construction it should be noted that only one person died. Constructing the tower is much more different than a normal building, as the tower is an open air structure with only 3 platforms available. However Gustav Eiffel employed a variety of safety features which helped to keep deaths and injuries to a minimum. Some of the safety features he employed included: movable staging, screens and guard rails.

Eiffel Tower Detail

It should be noted that Gustav Eiffel created the design of the tower using mathematics to determine the least resistance to wind. This is why the bottom four points of the tower are bulky and strong, while the tower itself is thin and open. The Eiffel Tower is painted mostly a mix of grey and brown paint. About every 7 years or so, about 50 to 60 tonnes of paint are used to protect the structure from rust.

The Three Levels of the Tower

There are a total of three levels of the Eiffel Tower. The first and second levels can easily be accessed by stairs or an elevator. On the first floor of the tower, one can take in the many sights, find shopping available and even food and beverage choices. On the second level, you will find souvenir shops, an observation deck and a private entrance to fine dining. The third level is only accessible by elevator. On the top level, you will find two different observation decks- one inside and one outside. In addition, you will find the engineers office and a representation of Gustav Eiffel’s original office.

The Tower Was Originally Built to Stand for 20 Years

Originally, the city of Paris signed a lease that the Eiffel Tower can be constructed and stand for 20 years. In fact, the tower was built so that it can be disassembled rather easily. However, over the next couple of decades, Parisians fell in love with the tower, as well as more practical uses of the tower- beaming radio waves. From the early 1900′s to 1950, the tower was utilized for beaming radio stations and telegraphy. There was even wires that ran from the tower’s radio antenna to anchor of the tower where there were a bunker which housed radio equipment. This radio equipment was utilized by both the military and commercial entities and it proved to be highly useful during World War I, when the tower’s radio antenna played an important role in capturing the famous spy Mata Hari. In later years, it was used to beam television signals and today it is one of the most visited landmarks in all of France. In fact, since its construction, more than 200 million have visited the tower (recent visitor counts are about 6.5 million each year).

Eiffel Tower by Day

Through the Years

Throughout the years, the Eiffel Tower has played a huge role in the culture and history of France. During the years of 1925 to 1934, the tower was used as an electric light billboard to advertise Citroen. During World War II, the Germans used the tower as propaganda. In 1940, before Hitler could visit the Eiffel Tower, French nationalists cut the elevator lift cables, so Hitler would have to walk up the stairs to the observation deck. At the time, the parts to fix the cables were unavailable due to the war. In fact, Hitler never climbed the tower, staying on the ground. Many state that Hitler was able to conquer France, but never the Eiffel Tower. In addition, when the Germans, tried to hoist giant swastika flags on the top level of the tower, the wind blew the flags off the tower in just a few hours.

Finally the Eiffel Tower averted disaster when in the final days of the war, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, which at that time was the military governor of Paris to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. However, General Dietrich von Choltitz did not follow the order and within just a few hours of the liberation of Paris by the Allied forces, the elevator lift cables were working again and the tower soon reopened.

Today, the Eiffel Tower continues to be a cultural icon and one of France’s most beloved landmarks. While the Eiffel Tower continues to be updated with new restaurants and shops, it has retained it’s essence from its earliest days.

Eiffel Tower by Night

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History of the American Flag

The flag of the United States of America, also known as the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the Star Spangled Banner, or even the Red White and Blue, is the official standard under which Americans identify themselves to the world. The flag is composed of thirteen horizontal and alternating red and white stripes with a blue rectangular field in the canton (top left corner) that is filled with fifty five pointed white stars. The US flag is unique in the world and clearly identifies US soil or interests wherever it flies.

When the thirteen colonies of British North America south of Canada declared their independence from Kingdom of Great Britain on July the 4th 1776 the new United States of America had no flag or any other official emblems. Sadly, the peace and prosperity that George Washington and the Continental Congress hoped for was quickly dashed as Great Britain immediately declared them to be in rebellion and engaged her formidable military to put an end to the rebellion.

Needing a banner under which the fledgling US army and states militias could rally, a small group of congressmen including Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Lynch, and Benjamin Harrison created the first flag which became known as the Continental Colors. The Continental Colors were flown for the first time on New Years Day 1776 and was made up of thirteen red and white horizontal stripes and a British Union Flag in the canton.

American Flag History

The Continental Colors became the official flag of the US Navy in 1776 and was hoisted on all US maritime ships as well as in ports controlled by the United States. After the declaration of independence and the revolutionary war had begun in earnest Washington was advised that in fact an almost identical flag was being used by the East India Company. This in itself wasn’t a major problem but the use of the Union Jack in the canton led many British generals to falsely assume the colonists had surrendered and reverted to crown loyalty.

In 1777 the US Congress approved an act establishing a new flag for the United States which has since become known as the Betsy Ross flag and looked similar to the old Continental Colors but the canton was changed from the Union Flag to a blue field with thirteen white stars . Traditionally these were arranged in a circle but in fact there were no rules for their arrangement and many flagmakers arranged the stars in rows or other patterns that appealed to them.

The thirteen stars came to represent the Sates of the Union, the first thirteen being Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island. Some historians believe the thirteen red stripes of the Continental Colors were chosen to represent the original thirteen states which makes the explanation of the thirteen stars in the Stars and Stripes flag puzzling.

The Stars and Stripes Flag is also known as the Betsy Ross flag, after claims that Betsy Ross made the first American flag surfaced in 1870. Her grandson William Canby presented a paper to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in which he related a family story about George Washington, Robert Morris, and Colonel George Ross approaching Betsy Ross in her shop to make a flag for them. They had been appointed by Congress to form a flag committee to design and then procure the services of a flag maker to replace the existing Continental colors.

American Flags

Sadly, Betsy Ross’ story cannot be verified since nowhere in the Congressional Library, or amongst any of the personal letters or receipts of these four people is any mention of a flag committee or of Betsy Ross being asked to make that first flag. Historic evidence actually points in other directions. Prior to the Continental Colors being used there had been other flags in use within the colonies that bore 9 or 13 horizontal stripes with a canton in the top left corner so the inspiration for the design of the Stars and Stripes pre-dates any of the legends.

The most likely designer of the US flag is a man by the name of Francis Hopkinson who in 1780 designed the Great Seal of the United States, and in letters and invoices sent by him to the Continental Board of Admiralty he requested compensation for not just the Great Seal, but also for other designs including the flag of the USA. Francis Hopkinson had been active in the declaration of independence, actually being a signatory to the declaration and one of the first congressmen.

With the admission of other states into the union, the flag started to be less relevant, and by 1795 Congress ordered the design should be changed to reflect the new reality of 15 states, Vermont and Kentucky having joined in 1791 and 1792 respectively. The Stars and Stripes were changed to fifteen red and white horizontal stripes, and fifteen white stars in the canton. Unfortunately Tennessee joined the Union a year later making the new design outdated again, but it wasn’t until 1818 that the situation was rectified.

President Monroe, the fifth elected President of the United States signed in 1818 a new flag act returning the flag to thirteen red and white stripes in honor of the foresight shown by the founding states, and specified that the canton would from that day on contain as many white stars as there were states of the Union with new stars added on the 4th of July following their admission to the United States. The flag was updated in 1818 to include the states of Tennessee, Ohio, Luoisiana, Indiana, and Mississippi, but by 1820 had been updated again to include Illoinois, Alabama, and Maine.

This arrangement has worked very well and is an enduring symbol of the US that also reflects the equality of the states and their importance as united states in a single republic. In the 1950s when Alaska and Hawaii were about to be admitted to the Union a tremendous amount of excitement surrounding the layout of the 49 and 50 white stars resulted in President Eisenhower receiving over 1500 submission from members of the public.

Buzz Aldrin saluting the American flag on the moon

In 1912 an executive order from President Taft had fixed dimensions of the flag and decided that the stars were to be arranged in 6 rows of 8 columns with each star positioned so that one point always faced the top edge of the flag, but President Taft’s arrangement wouldn’t have allowed the inclusion of Alaska and Hawaii under the original rule set out from 1818 that each state should be represented by a single star in the canton. In the event the Army Institute of Heraldry, who are the keepers of the design and arbiters of its use decided on the current layout of 9 rows of 6 and 5 alternating columns.

An amusing story from the time was that a young man of 17 from Lancaster, Ohio took part in redesigning the US flag as a school project. Robert Heft painstakingly removed the 48 stars from an existing flag then made 100 new stars which he ironed onto the flag front and reverse in a pattern identical to the one eventually chosen. His teacher Stanley Pratt awarded Heft a B grade for the project, unfortunately Heft was no seamstress, but under discussion an agreement was reached that if Congress chose Heft’s design his grade would be upgraded. Before the high school year was out Alaska and Hawaii had joined the Union and President Eisenhower announced the new flag design. To Stanley Pratt’s credit he kept his word and Robert Heft was awarded an A.

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