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Últimas Histórias
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História do Segway
Inventado por Dean Kamen, o Segway Human Transporter (HT) tem um veículo elétrico de duas rodas, auto-equilíbrio do projeto. Popular Science honrou o Segway como um dos avanços mais notáveis do mundo, com um prêmio em Best of What's New Award em um Categoria: Tecnologia em geral. Seu nome, um italiano homófono de "segues," significa, literalmente, para mover-se suavemente e sem hesitação de um estado, condição, situação ou elemento para outro.
Early Dean Kamen's Inovações
Dean Kamen, o inventor da tecnologia que utiliza o Segway, detém mais de 440 E.U. e estrangeiros de patentes. Ele desenvolveu um dispositivo médico, a primeira bomba de infusão portáteis para quimioterapia, neonatologia, endocrinologia, como estudante de graduação na faculdade. Kamen Em 1976 tornou-se empresário ao fundar a sua primeira empresa: AutoSyringe, Inc. Kamen vendeu a empresa em 1982 e fundou DEKA Research & Development Corporation para realizar pesquisas e desenvolvimento de seus produtos inovadores para grandes clientes corporativos.

Breakthrough invenções O IBOT eo Segway
O Segway resultou da tecnologia Kamen antes de equilíbrio do sistema de mobilidade IBOT ele desenvolveu em 1990. A idéia IBOT desenvolvido após Kamen ficou chateado enquanto assistia a um homem tenta obter sua cadeira de rodas sobre o meio-fio de uma calçada. A solução que ele desenvolveu em DEKA, de seis rodas, cadeira de rodas motorizada, permitiu que os deficientes a subir escadas. Além disso, também levantou-los ao nível dos olhos.
Em meados de 1990, DEKA começou a desenvolver o Segway Personal Transporter. Desenvolvimento no HT tomou cerca de US $ 100 milhões. Comercial de apoiadores que incluiu o Credit Suisse First Boston e Silicon Valley venture capital Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. Segundo a Vanity Fair, parceiro Kleiner Perkins John Doerr acreditava que a empresa Segway poderia chegar a US $ 1 bilhão em vendas.
DEKA utilizou a tecnologia utilizada no balanceamento IBOT para criar o dispositivo. O HT usado microprocessadores e giroscópios solid-state para manter o equilíbrio. O condutor utilizado guidão durante a condução de pé sobre a plataforma. Travões de atrito convencionais não iria funcionar no dispositivo porque precisava de suas rodas para equilibrar seu peso. Quando o HT parou de se mover, o processo de frenagem de energia transferida de volta para as baterias.
O projeto Segway não ocupar muito espaço. Forneceu manobrabilidade extremas e iria trabalhar nas calçadas de pedestres e vias. Além disso, o aparelho entregue emissões zero. Estabelecido em New Hampshire em 2000, a Segway LLC desenvolvido e fabricado no HT. Uma empresa separada da DEKA, empregava 130 trabalhadores.
Apresentando o Segway para Consumidores
Apresentado ao público em Dezembro de 2001, o primeiro oficial Segway Human Transporter (HT), recebeu muita atenção como celebridades usaram, pela primeira vez na televisão nacional. A sitcom Frasier caracterizado mesmo que em um episódio.
A legislação foi aprovada em 15 de fevereiro de 2002, que permitiu Segways para operar nas calçadas. Dentro de um ano 30 outros estados aprovaram leis que permitiram que o Segway para operar nas calçadas. Em 18 de novembro de 2002, o Segway foi vendida ao público pela primeira vez na Amazon.com. Os Segways vendido por US $ 3000.

O Segway não vendem tão bem para o público como apoiantes esperavam que (apenas 50.000 vendidas até março de 2009). As questões de segurança devido a um problema de software causou recorda, em 2006, também. O Segway é usado ainda em alguns parques temáticos por visitantes e funcionários.
Forças especiais da polícia treinada para proteger o público o Segway usado durante as Olimpíadas de 2008. Em maio de 2007 Segway teve mais de 250 pontos de venda em 60 países, e em outubro de 2008, mais de 1.000 policiais e agências de segurança uso Segway HTs nas suas operações de patrulhamento.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História do Titanic
O Titanic é provavelmente o navio mais lendários da história recente, devido à escala do projecto, a sua reflexão sobre as injustiças do início do século 20 e, claro, em última análise, o seu destino trágico. O Titanic, infelizmente, continua a ser famoso um dos maiores desastres marítimos da história. Ele continua a fascinar gerações de cientistas e entusiastas da história e se tornou um tema de culto verdadeiro. Ciência recentemente ajudou a desvendar alguns dos seus muitos mistérios, quando o naufrágio foi descoberto em 1985.
Construção
White Star Line, uma importante companhia de navegação britânica, decidiu no início do século 20 que seus engenheiros iria construir o maior navio de passageiros e de maior prestígio no mundo: o RMS Titanic. Thomas Andrews foi responsável pela concepção e construção começou no estaleiro Harland & Wolf naval em 1909.
O Titanic foi em direção ao fim da era do motor a vapor e foi um enorme navio, cujo tamanho era destinada a intimidar a concorrência. Com mais de 880 pés de comprimento (várias vezes o tamanho de um Boeing 747) e uma tonelagem de mais de 46.000 toneladas, o RMS Titanic era na época o maior navio já construído, transportando 3.547 pessoas no total.
O navio foi feito para impressionar tanto com seu tamanho e seu luxo a bordo. Engenheiros tinha orgulho de ter construído um navio rápido e forte que levaria os passageiros de alta-fim através do Atlântico em grande estilo.
Vida a bordo do Titanic
White Star Line tinha feito um ponto de projetar o mais luxuoso e, às vezes over-the-top-estruturas possíveis para acomodar os passageiros da classe muito rica de primeira. Colchões eram numerosos e incluíam um restaurante de gama alta, uma piscina e um centro esportivo. Segunda-passageiros da classe comum tinha muito mais condições de viajar, enquanto passageiros da terceira classe eram simplesmente a bordo para chegar ao outro lado.
Inaugural Voyage e Sinking
O Titanic fim trágico ocorrido durante sua primeira viagem e só, que começou a 10 de abril de 1912, de Southampton e tem como objectivo final, em Nova York. O navio transportou um total de 2228 pessoas de todas as classes sociais, nacionalidades e origens sociais. Edward John Smith, um capitão experiente britânico, estava no comando do navio para o que ele pretende ser sua última viagem antes da aposentadoria.
A viagem inaugural do Titanic foi um grande evento que atraiu uma multidão de celebridades Inglês e americanos e empresários, entre os quais Dorothy Gibson, John Astor, Benjamin Guggenheim, Isidor Straus (co-fundador da Macy's) e muitos outros.
O Titanic afundando ocorreu na noite de 14 de abril de 1912, quatro dias depois da viagem, quando o navio colidiu com um iceberg e seus compartimentos flutuante gradualmente preenchido com água até que não poderia suportar mais. Demorou quase três horas para o Titanic para ficar completamente submerso, mas as decisões e falta de preparação levou à morte de 1522 pessoas para fora dos actuais 2228 no barco.

O maior motivo de indignação na tragédia é sem dúvida a falta de botes salva-vidas, juntamente com a prioridade dada aos passageiros da primeira classe durante a evacuação. Surpreendentemente, White Star Line não tinha considerado necessário para equipar o navio com mais de 16 botes salva-vidas, que atingiu uma capacidade de apenas 1178 pessoas. Esses botes salva-vidas também foram desaproveitadas e ajudou a resgatar apenas cerca de 700 pessoas, enquanto o resto pereceram nas águas geladas.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História da Discman
O Discman, ou mais corretamente conhecida como Discman da Sony, foi uma série de jogadores de disco compacto portátil alimentado por baterias e com um conjunto de auscultadores que permitiu que os seus proprietários para ouvir música enquanto se desloca ou longe de uma corrente eléctrica. A linha de produtos Discman passou por várias evoluções, incluindo a adição de recepção de rádio, ea habilidade para reproduzir graváveis e discos regraváveis, que podem incluir a música em formato digital tradicional, ou em formato mp3.
Equipamentos de áudio pessoais, especialmente rádios em miniatura que poderão receber ondas médias (MW), ondas curtas e freqüência modulada (FM) transmissões realmente tornou-se popular na década de 1960, embora a rádio só é permitido ouvir a música que foi transmitida por uma emissora de rádio de acordo com suas lista. A procura de leitores de cassetes portátil, na década de 1970 que permite aos usuários ouvir música de sua própria escolha foi alta, mas a maioria dos jogadores eram do tamanho de uma pequena caixa de sapatos.

Sony foi uma das primeiras empresas a introduzir um rádio em miniatura para o mercado na década de 1950, e uma cultura corporativa de miniaturização desenvolveu resultando no primeiro Sony Walkman chegando ao mercado em 1980. O Walkman foi um sucesso imediato devido a ser apenas um pouco maior que uma fita cassete, e incentivou os executivos da Sony a pensar em um leitor de discos compactos que permitiriam atingir os mesmos objectivos.
Em outubro de 1982, o primeiro leitor de discos compactos foi lançado para o mercado, o CDP-101, e foi comercializado pela Sony anunciou que a Sony tinha apenas dois meses antes que a Philips, CBS / Sony, Polygram e havia desenvolvido em conjunto a tecnologia de discos compactos. O primeiro disco de áudio disponíveis comercialmente compacto foi Billy Joel's 52nd Street que está sendo liberado na CBS / Sony. Em 1983 apenas 1.000 títulos tinham sido libertados e Sony, que havia investido uma grande quantidade de pesquisas sobre o produto estavam ansiosos para ver leitores de discos compactos estão sendo vendidos nos mesmos números como os jogadores de vinil.
Em 1983, Katsuaki Tsurushima, chefe de engenharia da Sony, Departamento de Desenvolvimento surgiu com a idéia de criar um CD player portátil que pode ser alimentado por pilhas, transportáveis, e levar ao aumento da procura. Sua esperança era criar um CD player que não serão maiores do que três ou quatro caixas de CD empilhadas juntas e que poderiam ser vendidas a um preço que os alunos ainda podiam pagar. A idéia se tornou conhecido como o projeto de CD de CD, que significou um bocado de discos compactos baixo custo do projeto.
Com a aprovação do Nobuyuki Idei, chefe da Divisão de Áudio, Kozo Ohsone, chefe da Divisão de áudio em geral, e Akio Morita, CEO da Sony, foi realizada uma reunião no departamento Tsurushima com a Sony é o melhor e mais brilhante equipe de engenharia. Um bloco de madeira medindo 13 centímetros por 4 centímetros realizou-se no ar e Ohsone exortou os quadros técnicos para criar um CD player exatamente este tamanho. Olha, não foram importantes, a Sony queria ser a primeira no mercado com um compact disc player portátil.

Ao mesmo tempo este tipo de miniaturização era considerado quase impossível com a tecnologia da época, mas em novembro de 1984, engenheiros da Sony conseguiram encaixar um CD player em um caso um pouco menor do que o bloco de madeira, e que mês a D-50 , internamente apelidado como o Discman, foi jogador da Sony primeiro CD portátil lançado aos amantes da música japonesa. Foi preço de ¥ 49.800, que foi realmente a metade do custo de fabricação do produto, mas estava confiante de que a Sony D-50 se tornaria rentável.
A Sony D-50 não vem com a marca Discman, mas não deixa de ser o antepassado espiritual de todos Discman Sony CD players portáteis. Curiosamente, a Sony D-50 não enviar com a sua própria fonte de alimentação ou a capacidade de ajustar as baterias. Em vez disso, as baterias separadas ou fontes de alimentação podem ser comprados, com diferentes modelos de fornecimento de energia para diferentes fins. O mais popular ser o caso de uma bateria que se tratava de um dispositivo separado que pode ser adicionado ao D-50 e incluídas 6 pilhas tamanho C ou uma bateria recarregável de costume, e uma alça para carregar o jogo inteiro.
Nestas CD players primeiros dias foram altamente suscetíveis a pular, a D-50 não sendo diferentes, e, essencialmente, o que significa que o jogador da Sony primeiro CD portátil foi apenas portáteis, no sentido de que poderia ser tirado de um lugar para outro, e usando essa primeira geração Discman enquanto se desloca a pé necessário muito cuidado, certamente, fazer jogging ou exercício de outras actividades não eram práticos com este dispositivo, apesar de não parar de pessoas de vendas e marketing da promoção da D-50 como um movimento no CD player.

A tecnologia não melhorou substancialmente com os modelos internacionais da Discman da Sony que é muito igual ao D-50, em que todos os exigidos uma bateria ou fonte de alimentação separada, mas eles variam em características e aparência. O D-100 Discman paticularly é conhecido por ser um pouco mais magro do que o D-50 ainda embalagem uma gama completa de acessórios de software que efectivamente não o torna diferente da extremidade superior CD players casa, incluindo a programação completa e repita seletivo.
Em 1987 a tecnologia displayer compacto tinha melhorado na medida que o Discman D-20 foi capaz de oferecer um built-in do compartimento da bateria que levaria tanto a fábrica forneceu uma bateria recarregável, ou a opção de usar 4 pilhas AA. Uma unidade de controle remoto opcional também pode ser usado permitindo a D-20 Discman para ser usado no lugar de um Hi-Fi CD player. Em 1992 produziu a Sony Discman D-66, que integrava um 'anti mecanismo de duplo amortecedor de choque ", onde o mecanismo óptico eo motor foi suspenso em molas dentro do processo, mas também embebido com líquido pequenos sacos cheios de borracha.
A década de 2000 viu o crescimento do formato de música MP3 e uma mudança significativa na concepção Discman da Sony que agora ronda leitores de CD portáteis e incorporadas G Protection 'Sony' anti-salto do sistema. O crescimento explosivo de chips para telefones celulares, computadores portáteis e outros produtos eletrônicos torna viável para a Sony para desenvolver uma tecnologia anti-salto à frente que iria ler e armazenar dados em memória onboard para reprodução em tempo real. A técnica foi auto-correcção e pula em dados seriam lidos mais uma vez antes do jogo, resultando em uma maior experiência livre pule para o ouvinte.
O apelido Discman finalmente foi retirado em favor de CD Walkman em 2000, em torno do mesmo tempo, a Sony lançou o novo logotipo "W", composto por várias juntas pontos, para a gama Walkman de produtos. A marca ainda é Discman da Sony que se reservam o direito de ressuscitar a marca no futuro.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História da Tecnologia
Como seres humanos, continuamos a lutar para tornar nossa vida mais gratificante. Nossa busca de conhecimento e compreensão da natureza que nos rodeia é inerente a todos nós. Tecnologia em um sentido pode ser definida como a invenção de ferramentas e avanço do conhecimento. Além disso, a tecnologia também utiliza o conhecimento acumulado e as tecnologias já disponíveis para melhorar ainda mais nosso conhecimento e construir em cima ou descobrir novas ferramentas que podem ser utilizados pela humanidade.
Definindo a Tecnologia de Through the Ages
Desde o início do homem, nós utilizamos ferramentas e desenvolveu a tecnologia, tais como pedras para matar presas ea carne. Desde diferentes tecnologias têm vindo a definir as diferentes idades do homem e da civilização, aqui é a história da tecnologia baseada em idades específicas.
A Idade da Pedra
Durante a Idade da Pedra, que muitos consideram durou de cerca de 2,5 milhões de anos atrás, como seres humanos começaram a desenvolver por volta de 3300 aC, que começou na Idade do Bronze, existem várias tecnologias que foram desenvolvidas. Embora pouco conhecimento necessário para aproveitar estas tecnologias, no entanto, eles foram fundamentais para manter a nossa espécie em extinção. Finalmente, as tecnologias e conhecimentos que foi adquirida ao longo dos primeiros 2,5 milhões anos de existência ajudou os humanos a evoluir a partir da Idade da Pedra à Idade do Bronze, onde cada vez mais sofisticadas ferramentas e conhecimentos foram aproveitados. Algumas das tecnologias que foram desenvolvidas durante a Idade da Pedra incluem o uso de pedras para matar a presa e criação de eixos. A capacidade de aproveitar o fogo (cerca de 1,5 milhões de anos atrás), vestuário (cerca de 100.000 anos atrás), a capacidade de domesticar os animais (que ocorrem cerca de 15.000 anos atrás e outras invenções, como o arco e flecha (9.000 aC), agricultura (8.000 aC ) ea roda (4.000 aC).
A Idade do Bronze
A Idade do Bronze, que durou cerca de 3300 aC a 1200 aC, foi uma época em que a civilização começou a fundir-se ao redor do Crescente Fértil e expandiu-se para a Europa, Ásia e Africano. A Idade do Bronze, recebe o nome de uma época em metais como cobre e estanho eram usados para criar armas e ferramentas. A tecnologia de minérios de metal dourada em ferramentas foi um avanço definitivo a partir de ferramentas de pedra anteriores a ser utilizado. Algumas das tecnologias que foram avançadas durante esse período incluiu a domesticação de animais e inovações agrícolas, o carro (cerca de 2.000 aC), o uso do sal e da construção de assentamentos permanentes, muitos dos quais estão ainda hoje.
A Idade do Ferro
A Idade do Ferro geralmente datas de 1200 aC a 500 aC, que é o início do Império Romano. Durante este período, o uso do ferro começou a tornar-se proeminente como o metal para ferramentas e armas, sendo que é muito mais forte do que o cobre, estanho e bronze. Durante este período muitas pessoas migraram para o mais longe de atingir os continentes, incluindo a Europa e assentamentos permanentes foram desenvolvidos. Além disso, durante esse período várias religiões e filosofias foram desenvolvidos, incluindo Budismo e Confuciusism. Alguns outros avanços tecnológicos incluíam o relógio de sol (800 aC), vidro (500 aC) e uma vasta gama de avanços no comércio, navios, arquitetura, educação, etc
The Age of Ancient Civilizations
De volta de 500 aC, com o início do Império Romano, a cerca de 500 dC, quando ele finalmente caiu e pegou Europa medieval, havia uma abundância de inovações tecnológicas ocorrendo. Para muitos estudiosos, este período na história humana é considerada a Era de Ouro como gelled civilizações e da tecnologia em todas as facetas da vida humana expandida. Refira-se que as civilizações de todo o globo começou a crescer (como na China, Índia, Europa, Oriente Médio, África, América Central e América do Sul, etc.) Algumas das muitas inovações que ocorreram durante este período incluem: planejamento urbano, saneamento, educação, arquitetura, fósforos, papel, matemática, religião, pontes, a bússola magnética, lei e governo, aquedutos, a construção de estradas, barragens, estribos para cavalos, concretos, arte, filosofia e mais.
A Idade Média
A Idade Média, que teve lugar entre 500 AD a cerca de 1500 foi um período na Europa, onde a maior parte da tecnologia estagnou ou até regrediu. No entanto, deve notar-se com as Cruzadas eo desenvolvimento de mais comércio e as viagens para o Oriente Médio, a Europa mais uma vez começou a crescer e este crescimento em todas as áreas da sociedade, iniciada no período da Renascença. Enquanto para a maioria da Europa estagnou, houve várias inovações em tecnologia, incluindo o relógio mecânico, o moinho de vento, óculos e inovações na agricultura, arquitetura e os militares.

Muçulmano Revolução Agrícola
Durante o século 8 º, o mundo islâmico predominantemente localizadas no Oriente Médio revolucionou globalizada e, finalmente, uma ampla gama de técnicas de agricultura e colheitas. Além disso, durante esta revolução, hidráulica foi utilizado na usina para uma grande variedade de culturas diferentes, juntamente com uma grande variedade de outros usos foi inovado. Outros avanços tecnológicos incluem café da caneta-tinteiro, vidro de quartzo, inovações na matemática, sabão duro, shampoo, ácido nítrico, o globo celeste e dispositivos incendiários.
O período da Renascença
As trocas comerciais entre a Europa eo Oriente Médio explodiu durante as cruzadas e os europeus como a sede de conhecimento cresceu, no período do Renascimento iniciou-geral marcada desde o período do século 14 ao século 16. Durante este período, a Europa florescia a nível artístico e científico. Algumas das principais inovações durante este período ocorreram na educação. Uma grande invenção, a imprensa ajudou livros espalhados por toda a Europa eo mundo comunicar uma vasta gama de idéias e, finalmente, promover a educação. Muitas escolas e universidades foram desenvolvidos. arquitetura, filosofia e outras disciplinas expandiu e cresceu e medicina também gostava de uma série de inovações.
Era dos Descobrimentos
Com o comércio se tornando um grande meio de riqueza para os países da Europa, a Era dos Descobrimentos veio a dominar a esfera da tecnologia e da inovação, principalmente no transporte marítimo, a navegação ea cartografia. Durante este período de tempo que durou a partir de 1400 para 1600, muitos navios navegaram em todo o mundo e ao redor do mundo. Durante este período, o Novo Mundo foi descoberto e assentamentos e de colonização ocorreu, juntamente com a conquista do local, os povos indígenas.

A Revolução Industrial
A Revolução Industrial foi um momento de grande inovação, devido ao aproveitamento da energia barata (através de carvão) e da máquina a vapor. Estas duas inovações que ocorreram principalmente na Grã-Bretanha durante a tarde do dia 18 e 19 º séculos foi um marco na tecnologia humana. Com a possibilidade de já não poder contar com a água, alimentação animal ou alimentação humana para a agricultura e outros usos, o carvão pode agora ser queimado para impulsionar as máquinas a vapor para uma ampla variedade de usos, incluindo fábricas, meios de transporte (locomotivas a vapor e os navios a vapor) e os capacidade de produção em massa de metais como o ferro e outros metais para construir pontes e outros itens. Com a Revolução Industrial, veio a revolução de transporte que a tornou muito mais fácil de transportar pessoas, animais e bens em toda a Europa e agora nos Estados Unidos. Com a Revolução Industrial veio também grandes inovações na economia e na sociedade como mais e mais pessoas deixaram as comunidades agrícolas e migraram para as cidades para viver e trabalhar. Isso ajudou a pavimentar o caminho para uma sociedade baseada na especialização.
19 º e 20 º séculos
Durante os últimos dois séculos, enormes inovações em tecnologia têm ocorrido muitas inovações para a lista. No entanto, é importante notar que muitas dessas inovações têm ocorrido devido a descobertas anteriores, o montante acumulado de conhecimento e tecnologia que tem sido desenvolvido ao longo do tempo. Apenas algumas das grandes inovações em tecnologias que têm ocorrido nos últimos 200 anos: grandes mudanças no governo, da sociedade, praticamente todas as instituições, eletrificação, matemática e ciências, invenções como o rádio, televisão, telefone, computador, internet, automóvel , avião, medicina, economia, armamento militar, refrigeração, eletrodomésticos, saneamento, energia nuclear, fotografia, naves espaciais, a agricultura mecanizada e muito mais.

Hoje, vivemos em uma sociedade que tem sido muito alterado devido às inovações e melhorias da tecnologia. Esse conhecimento acumulado está crescendo a uma velocidade crescente e nível. Quando tomou geralmente séculos ou milênios no passado para que a sociedade ser alterado a partir da tecnologia, hoje, a tecnologia pode ter um impacto enorme na nossa sociedade em questão de décadas ou mesmo anos. Enquanto não se sabe que o futuro reserva para as inovações técnicas, com a sede de conhecimento e descoberta inata no ser humano, você pode ter certeza que mais avanços tecnológicos será visto no horizonte.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História do Telefone
É difícil acreditar que a mudança fundamental uma única invenção trouxe ao mundo, mas é precisamente isso que o telefone que, de repente, conversando com um ente querido ou colega de trabalho em quase toda a distância com facilidade sem esforço no conforto da sua própria casa. No mundo de hoje de telefones celulares e telefonia pela Internet que aceitam a mudança fundamental para a sociedade que ocorreu com a invenção do telefone.
As crianças aprendem a amarrar duas latas juntamente com fio e mantê-los bem afastados uns dos outros, permitindo assim a realização de som de um para o outro, e se este está ligado a um sino, bem como todo o sistema pode tornar-se um telefone rudimentar como poderíamos ver no Cartoon Flintstones, mas os telefones real requer eletricidade e componentes que podem ser feitas apenas com as ferramentas adequadas e materiais. O som levado pelo fio é devido ao som vibrações ao longo do fio que ecoam na lata.
Este é um sistema completamente diferente do que é utilizado em navios de longo prazo onde tubos ocos na ponte de navios poderiam ser realizadas até a casa das máquinas ou simplesmente de cozinha confinando as vibrações do som em um tubo. No início de 1800 o telégrafo elétrico foram inventados e confiável foi a realização de todos os tipos, sempre que um telégrafo poderiam ser instaladas. Era seu desejo de melhorar o telégrafo, e conhecimento das ondas sonoras através de elocução de ensino para alunos surdos que Alexander Graham Bell deu a idéia de inventar o telefone.
Tipo A história tem sido a de Bell, creditando-lhe a ser um cavalheiro, bem como o inventor do telefone, embora ele quase perdeu a honra. No mesmo dia em que Bell pediu a sua patente para o telefone, no dia 14 de fevereiro de 1876, também fez Elisha Gray, outro proeminente inventor cuja advertência sobre a Patente E.U. Office descrito um transmissor de água para ser usada em seu próprio telefone. Infelizmente, o advogado de Bell e pelo secretário do escritório de patentes, um bêbado habitual, serviu juntamente na Guerra Civil e conspirou para ter patente de Bell registrado em primeiro lugar, inicialmente, por adição de notas complementares à aplicação de Bell, e depois adiar a alegação de Gray até a aplicação de Bell poderia ser apresentado.
Quando o examinador de patentes percebeu que ambas as aplicações foram semelhantes ele chamou de uma parada para processamento de ambos até que pudessem ser comprovados. Bell demonstrou a técnica desenvolvida por Gray e foi concedida a patente, que foi posteriormente confirmada em um tribunal de justiça. Os historiadores desde os tempos agora reconhecem que Gray teria sido considerado o inventor do telefone se não fosse por Bell demonstrar a tecnologia de primeira. As primeiras palavras já proferidas por meio de um telefone ocorreu no laboratório Bell, com seu assistente Thomas Watson, que foi relatado para ter ouvido Bell dizendo: "Senhor Watson, venha aqui, eu quero te ver".
As técnicas desenvolvidas por Alexander Graham Bell e Thomas Watson conduzido directamente para o primeiro serviço telefónico comercial apenas um ano após a patente de Bell foi registrado, porém outros cientistas dignos antes de Bell, homens como Antonio Meucci da Itália, de Johann Reis da Alemanha também havia demonstrado protótipos de telefone, embora as técnicas não eram tão avançados Thomas Edison adoptadas algumas das idéias de Reis na criação do microfone de carbono.

Boston foi a primeira cidade cujos cidadãos beneficiados em 1877 com os primeiros telefones a ser instalado. Inicialmente, os assinantes foram emparelhados e só poderia falar com um outro. Centrais telefônicas foram rapidamente inventou que os assinantes permissão para falar com qualquer telefone conectado ao mesmo conjunto de linhas telefônicas, o primeiro serviço de entrar em 1878 em New Haven. Nos primeiros três anos do serviço de telefone comercial esteja disponível a United Stats contava com quase 50.000 telefones.
A invenção da central telefônica de assinantes resultou na necessidade de uma maneira eficaz para se conectar com o outro sem ter que falar com um operador, que na época era a única maneira de permitir que linhas de telefone diferentes para ser ligado e usado uma série de cabos curtos que estaria ligado a uma linha de bordo para que o assinante foi anexado. Cada um desses telefones original teria também é fonte de energia própria, normalmente uma bateria no caso do telefone que a substituição periódica necessária.
Early trocas de telefone foram baseados no local, um assinante só poderia falar com outro assinante em sua própria troca por pedir um operador para fazer a chamada, e se as chamadas para outras centrais locais foram obrigados a operadora teria ligação com o próximo operador em uma seqüência para conectar-se a chamada. Chamadas de longa distância não pode ser colocada a partir de casa, os assinantes foram obrigados a marcar uma consulta com a central telefônica para usar um estande especialmente construídas que continha um telefone blindado com maior capacidade elétrica que poderia transmitir a longas distâncias fio.
Intercâmbios eletromecânicos foram inventados pelos principais empresas de telefonia no início de 1900 junto com o telefone rotativo que iria enviar uma série de pulsos para o câmbio e, em seguida, sem intervenção humana, permitem uma chamada para ser colocado. Os E.U. adotaram essa tecnologia rapidamente, afinal, em 1904, mais de três milhões de assinantes foram conectados com trocas manuais, e que exige o emprego de dezenas de milhares de operadores.

O aparelho de telefone real usado em casa sofreu i desenvolvimento significativo da década de 1920 quando Western Electric desenvolveu um telefone que incorporou um aparelho que incluía tanto o fone de ouvido e microfone, e pela primeira vez, permitindo que os assinantes de se mover, sentar ou levantar-se durante um chamada em vez de ficar fixo em uma posição única, com sua orelha pressionada contra o auscultador que se fazia parte da unidade de base. O modelo Bell 102 foi o primeiro empreendimento deste tipo de telefone, um estilo que continua popular, hoje, com muitos fabricantes de telefone celular a construção de réplicas moderna do modelo 102.
Após a década de 1930 os telefones não mudaram muito até a introdução de telefones digitais e bolsas em 1960, uma melhoria que ainda está a ser implementado a nível mundial, mas que realmente não impacto muitos assinantes que não o seu telefone com tons em vez de pulsos para iniciar uma chamada. Telefonia digital que entretanto usher na era dos telemóveis que as ondas de rádio usadas para transmitir sem fio, e demonstrado pela primeira vez por um engenheiro que trabalhava para a Motorola em 1973. Aceitação pelos consumidores em larga escala de telefones celulares não teve início até o final dos anos 1980 e início de 1990, embora até 2005 ligações de telefone móvel, na maioria dos países desenvolvidos tinha superado o número de ligações de telefonia fixa.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História dos Telemóveis
A história de telefones celulares pode ter se originado em 1910 com Lars Magnus Ericsson, disse que era para ter instalado um telefone em seu carro. Ele viajou por todo o país, e quando ele viu um lugar onde as linhas telefônicas eram acessíveis, ele iria ligar para eles usando um par de longos fios elétricos.
Em 1946, dois engenheiros soviéticos, G. Shapiro e I. Zaharchenko, testado com sucesso um telefone móvel instalado em um carro. Pode ligar a uma rede telefônica local até uma faixa de 20 quilômetros. Um ano depois, dois engenheiros da Bell Labs, Douglas H. Ring e W. Rae jovem, propôs células hexagonais em telefones celulares em carros e usando uma de três antena direcional para transmitir e receber sinais. Entretanto, a tecnologia celular não foi desenvolvido até 1960, quando Richard Frenkiel e Joel Engel do Bell Labs desenvolveu o sistema eletrônico.

Science Fiction ligado à realidade
Desenvolvido pela Ericsson e vendidas na Suécia em 1956, a Mobile Telephone sistema ou MTA, foi o primeiro sistema totalmente automático de telefone móvel que é exigido qualquer tipo de controle manual. Era muito pesado, porém, com um peso total de 40 kg. Em 1965, o modelo foi atualizado para MTB com transistores e sinalização DTMF. Ela pesava apenas 9 kg.
Na sequência de saltos da Ericsson, um engenheiro de rádio jovem soviético chamado Leonid Kupriyanovich criado em 1957, o telefone móvel portátil. He named it after himself as LK-1 or “radiophone.” This was a true mobile phone because it was a relatively small handset equipped with an antenna and rotary dial, and can connect with a base station that could connect to a local telephone network. Not only that, his phone weighed only 3 kilograms, could operate up to 30 kilometers, and had up to 30 hours of battery life. In 1958, Kupriyanovich resized his “radiophone” to a “pocket” version, which had an improved “light” weight of about 500 grams.

Continuity of Service
In 1958, Russia continued to develop mobile phone systems, which connected with base stations that could serve up to six customers. However, the problem with these systems was the continuity of calls kept being disrupted when the phone went through several base stations. The caller had to stay in an area nearest to one base so the call's signal would not be disrupted.
This problem was solved when, in 1970, Amos E. Joel, Jr., another Bell Labs engineer, invented an automatic “call handoff” system to allow mobile phones to move through several cell areas during a single conversation without loss of conversation.
Generations
Successfully launched in 1971, the ARP network in Finland could be considered as a zero generation cellular network. First generation networks started with the release of the Motorola DynaTAC on April 1973. Soon, the second-generation (2G) phones followed suit with GSM, CDMA and iDEN in the 1990s. Later, 3G networks ramped up their services with faster EDGE and GPRS features. The 2G phones have been gradually phased out of the market. Third-generation phones are now widespread in their use. Live streaming of radio and television is the future of the technology.
Histórias Relacionadas:
História da nanotecnologia
The idea that we can build machines in microscopic sizes and have them function like construction bots producing, organizing, and rearranging objects at the molecular level is not as easy to believe when the technology is not yet existing. That concept was what Richard Feynman put forward in his talk “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom” in 1959. Although his was the first academic talk to deal with the tenets of nanotechnology, the idea was not new.
Early Influences
Before Feynman he talked about it, the concept of nanotechnology has already been proposed by James Clerk Maxwell in 1867 when he proposed as a thought experiment a tiny entity known as Maxwell's Demon that was able to handle individual molecules.
Meanwhile, in 1914, Richard Adolf Zsigmondy was the first who used nanometer for characterizing particle size. He determined it as 1/1,000,000 of millimeter. From that, he developed the first system classification based on particle size in the nanometer range.

Moore's Law
As influências que reuniu este conceito foram os melhores codificada na Lei de Moore. It was a prediction made by Gordon Moore of Intel in 1965 on how modern circuitry would pack more features as more devices were produced for the market. It basically ensures that the exponential growth of computing power would inversely match the size and features of the machines that would be produced. So far, the law has held strong for nearly 50 years in spite of Moore's only 6 years of experience with microchips.
Molecular Manufacturing
Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science University first defined “nanotechnology” in a 1974 paper as “the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule.” Nanotechnology, or the direct manipulation of individual atoms, is mostly applied in molecular manufacturing.
Eric Drexler was the first to apply the concept of nanotechnology to engineering through the concept of molecular manufacturing. Drexler presented that if atoms were viewed like marbles, then moclecules would be tight collections of these marbles. When snapped together the right way, these molecules could become normal-scaled tools like motors and gears. Despite their nanoscale size, these tools could operate the same way as their large counterparts could. The moving parts of the nano machines would be formed by an army of atoms held together by the strength of their own atomic bonds.

Ultimately, Drexler envisioned that these nano bots would be used as “assemblers” that could put together atoms into any desired shape. If Drexler were to be believed, nanotechnology, through the concept of molecular manufacturing, would revolutionize everything from biological science to space travel.
Applying this simplistic vision of molecular manufacturing to other industries, Drexler claimed that coal can be turned into diamond and that computer chips can be created from sand. The processes would be drastically shortened, and their valuable products could be produced faster through reorganization of atoms that make up these materials. Thus, Drexler presented nanotechnology as a scientific field that solely revolved around molecular manufacturing.
Histórias Relacionadas:
History of Potassium
Marked with a letter K as its chemical symbol, Potassium is one of the most abundant metals on Earth. In nature, it occurs as ionic salt found dissolved in seawater, and as part of many minerals. It is also necessary for the function of plant and animal living cells. However, it does not exist in its pure elemental form because of its highly reactive nature.
Potash
Before the 18th century, people used potassium in the form of potash, a cleaning agent. Potash is a postassium compound made from wood ashes washed with water. Potash would dissolve in the water and it would be collected in large iron pots and evaporated. The white substance that remained was called potash.
The name potash came from the pots used in the process and the ash-like residue that is scraped from their bottom. It was also known as vegetable alkali (lye) because of the plants that gave the wood used for burning and producing the ash, and because of the property of the metal, which is alkali. This vegetable alkali was harsh type of chemical used for cleaning.
Potash is also rich in essential plant nutrients, which makes it a very effective plant fertilizer. After a long history of mining and manufacturing, potash was also used to make soap, glass, and dyes.
Potash was often misidentified with a similar cleaning agent called mineral alkali. It was obtained from rocks and was known as soda ash. They had the same qualities and they were used the same way. They only differed in their sources.

Discovery of Potassium
By the end of the 18th century, chemists realized that both the vegetable alkali and the mineral alkali have the same elements, which they had not identified before. They tried different methods of isolating these elements from the compounds.
In 1807, Humphry Davy, a British chemist, began working on separating the chemical elements. After making water solutions of potash and soda ash, he passed electric current through it. However, no result could be easily seen because the elements instantly reacted with the water.
Shortly after, Davy realized he had to exclude the water from his experiments. When he passed electric current through the solution of potash, tiny droplets of the metal emerged. He named this new metal potassium after potash.

This process made potassium the first metal isolated by electrolysis. Then a few days later, Davy was able to isolate sodium using the same method. This feat revealed that the wood ash was potassium carbonate and soda ash was sodium carbonate.
Producing Potassium
People used to cut down trees and burn them to produce wood ash for making potash. Now, potassium is produced only through electrolysis or through thermal methods that use potassium chloride. The source materials used for the process come from the abundant deposits of the metal found in ancient lakes and seabeds.
Potash, on the other hand, is mined from Saskatchewan in Canada, Germany and the three states in US namely, California, New Mexico and Utah. Although the metal is non-toxic, it can be dangerous to anyone exposed to it. In its pure form, potassium is highly reactive.
Today, potassium is commonly used in making soaps, glass, fertilizers, medicines, explosives, and fireworks. It is also an essential nutrient for the human body.
Histórias Relacionadas:
History of the iPod
Today, one of the most popular devices to listen to music is the ubiquitous iPod. Apple's iPod not only revolutionized the way many listen to their music, but also how they buy their music and other types of media. While there are plenty of other personal music players, none has had such an impact on culture, the music business and technology . Here is the history of the iPod.
Tony Fadell and his Digital Music Player
In the late 1990's and early part of the century, digital music players were slowly being created. The industry was new and the technology wasn't exactly perfected. For instance, while millions of people each year were now discovering the joy of mp3's on their computers, many realized that carrying around a hard drive of music wasn't exactly technically feasible. The first mp3 players that were created by company's such as Rio and Creative were just starting to realize the true potential of a personal digital music player, however storage was an issue. The first mp3 players had storage space of 32 MB and 64 MB, only enough some times to play a handful of songs. In addition, the user interface made the device more like a Sony Walkman and not a next generation digital music player. However, one man did see the true potential of personal digital music players and his name was Tony Fadell.
Tony Fadell in 2000 realized that the personal digital music player had incredible potential just waiting to be tapped. While pretty much all the existing mp3 players of the time relied on costly compact flash style storage, Tony Fadell realized that new quarter-sized hard drives which offered 5 GB of storage space could be utilized to offer the consumer an entire library's worth of music.

Tony Fadell - Apple
In addition, with the advent of Napster and its legal woes affecting the entire music industry, Tony Fadell envisioned that his new player could easily link on the internet with a media service where consumers can easily purchase new music that was legally downloaded directly to the player. With this idea in hand he started to meet with electronics and media companies in 2000 to sell it. His first stop was at RealNetworks. At the time, RealNetworks was one of the leaders of online media. They had millions of visitors and a wide range of media products being sold on their site- one of their more notable products was their premium radio and television channels. Unfortunately, at the time, RealNetworks balked at the idea finding it difficult to justify the creation of a separate personal music device when the media they were selling was successful as it is. Tony Fadell also pitched his new idea to other company including Phillips, but ultimately was turned down.
Tony Fadell Approaches Apple
In his quest to get his idea realized, Tony Fadell went to Apple. At the time, Apple was focused on their iMac line of computers. While they did make consumer electronics in the past (remember Newton), success was not guaranteed. However, Apple was very excited about Tony Fadell's idea regarding a personal digital music player, especially since only a few months ago, Apple invested and bought a company called Soundjam MP which could deliver digital tunes directly to a computer or music player.
Apple gave Tony Fadell the green light to start on his project in early 2001. Apple also gave him a development team of about 30 people and a deadline of one year to create the player.
It should be noted that while Apple gave Tony Fadell a green light on the project, he still didn't have confidence in Apple that they would want to create and develop a player from scratch, so instead he decided to look around for companies that already developed a player and work off their creation. He found a company called PortalPlayer. This company had already developed a player, but it was not yet released to the market. In fact, PortalPlayer had developed over the years several players, but all of them lacked Fadell's vision- they had poor features and the battery life was horrendous, lasting at most 3 hours.
Steve Jobs and the Development of the iPod

Steve Jobs
It should be noted that Steve Jobs did take an interest to the iPod from the very beginning and he was present at many of the meetings throughout the year during development. He also tested the product and would express his likes and dislikes about the interface, etc.
In about 8 month's time, Fadell and PortalPlayer put together the working hardware of the new iPod. On the other end, Apple developed the interface and the scroll wheel that would become infamous. The product was ready to be launched in October of 2001.
The First Generation iPod
The original iPod was release for sale on October 23, 2001. The First generation iPod included a 5 GB Toshiba hard drive, ARM processors, an operating system from Pixo, a lithium polymer battery for added battery life, a high resolution display and of course the scroll wheel- however the first generation scroll wheel was mechanical. While many in the industry didn't at first notice the importance of this player, the scroll wheel, large storage and extremely intuitive interface made it very easy to hold a library of music and find songs that you would like to play.
Compared to other players at the time that included large storage, the Apple iPod was much easier to navigate giving it an edge. At the time, no one realized just how important the iPod would be to Apple, the music industry and consumers around the world. In fact, when it was first released, many commented on the negatives of the device. It was expensive at $400, the scroll wheel seemed foreign and iPod was not compatible with Microsoft PC's. However, in a few months time, sales were very brisk and the iPod was rolled out to an excited market in Europe. Later on in the first generation, a more robust 10 GB Toshiba hard drive was available as well.

1st Generation iPod
The Second Generation iPod Arrives in July 2002
The second generation iPod saw a couple of major changes, but nothing revolutionary to the already successful first generation iPod. First off, the storage capacity doubled and was now available in both 10 GB and 20 GB models. In addition, Apple taking note of who was purchasing their players, were utilizing special software to make their iPod compatible with Windows. Apple now included PIM software making iPod's compatible with Window's through MusicMatch. Apple had a business agreement with Music Match to offer legal downloads of music for iPod owners. The second generation iPod definitely was a solid product and was extremely successful for the time period, however with newer iPods on the horizon, Apple and the music industry would realize just how iconic the iPod would become.
The Third Generation Apple iPod
The third generation iPod was a complete redesign of the product. It helped propel sales of the iPod into the stratosphere. Earlier iPods utilized mechanical parts, however the 3G iPod was completely solid state. All the controls and the scroll wheel were now solid state. In addition the casing was slimmer. The original iPods were bulkier. With Apple realizing the many PC users buying iPods, it added a new dock connector that was compatible with USB 2.0 and Firewire. Other additions included beefed up storage including: 10 GB, 15 GB, 20 GB and 40 GB. And with the redesign came also a new battery, Sony's lithium-ion battery.
iTunes Goes Online
While Apple did have an agreement with MusicMatch to offer downloadable digital music to iPod owners during the first formative years, Apple and Tony Fadell always envisioned creating and running their own store to make available legal downloads of music to iPod consumers. This became a reality in June 2003. While originally it started only for those running the OSX platform, a few months later, iTunes was compatible with Windows users as well.

iTunes was a cosmic shift for iPod owners. Now they can easily shop and directly download legal digital music onto their iPod music player. With millions of songs available, purchasing a wide range of music from major labels was now a reality and its success grabbed the attention of the music industry, computer industry and media industries all over the world.
Fourth Generation iPod
With the success of the iPod in full swing, the fourth generation iPod was released in July 2004. It added additional features and revamped the styling with a slimmer case. Some of the new features available on the fourth generation iPod included a new color screen, the ability to view photos and additional storage capacity including 60 GB and 80 GB models. There were also some minor changes to the hold switch. It should also be noted that new iPod products were released most importantly the iPod Mini.
iPod 5 th and 6th Generations
Later Classic iPods including the 5 th generation and 6 th generation mainly stayed the same with some minor changes in hardware and firmware. While the casing was much slimmer than previous models the Classic iPod did increase storage capacity to 120 GB and 160 GB, however 160 GB has been discontinued. Also, features such as the ability to play video were added. It should also be noted that the Classic white iPod which at times was available in black as well was now silver.
The iPod Mini

The iPod Mini was released in 2004 to wide acclaim. The Mini was a smaller version of the Classic iPod and it took advantage of a smaller size hard drive that was developed by Hitachi. The hard drive was about half the size of the Classic's hard drive. However, the storage capacity was significantly smaller. The first iPod Mini had a storage size of 4 GB, which was perfect for the many that used iPods for working out and other activities where a lighter weight and form was necessary. It included a click wheel and a smaller size screen with pretty much the same interface. It also came in five attractive colors including blue, green, pink, silver and gold. It originally listed for $249. There was a second generation iPod mini which bumped up the storage size to 6 GB, on the 2G iPod mini, the gold color was discontinued. The 2G model also had an extended battery life, going from 8 hours of audio to 18.
The iPod Nano
The iPod Mini was the beginning of the smaller size iPods. Storage was getting not only smaller, but offering higher capacities. This meant that the forms of new digital music players could be much smaller than ever before. Apple seized the opportunity to create a fully functional iPod in an extremely small form. The result was the iPod Nano.
The iPod Nano was released in September of 2005 to rave reviews. The iPod Nano was the mid level digital music player that while touted a smaller version form of the Classic iPod had a different kind of memory- flash memory. While Classic iPods had hard drives with all moving parts, the Nano was all solid state. This means that there are no moving parts which make it more reliable, especially if you shake it or drop it. The first generation iPod Nano came in either black or white, had a two inch color screen and had a storage capacity of 1 GB, 2GB and 4 GB. It should be noted that it also had the ability to view photos. The Nano was considerably smaller than the Classic, the weight of the Nano was only 1.5 oz and the measurements of the case were: 3.5 inches, by 1.6 inches by .27 inches thick. Currently there have been 4 generations of the iPod Nano.

The 2G iPod Nano
Released a year later in September of 2006, the 2G Nano came in several colors including silver, blue, green, pink, red and black. It also had larger storage capacities going all the way up to 8 GB.
The 3G iPod Nano
The third generation Nano was redesigned to give it a more bulky look. While still quite small, many found the form lacking. However, additional features were added including the ability to play video and a new interface. Storage topped out at 8 GB.
The 4G iPod Nano
The fourth generation Nano saw a return to it's original form more or less with some slight changes and some added colors. It also includes some nifty features such as an accelerometer which allows you to shake to shuffle and added storage space going all the way up to 16 GB.
The iPod Shuffle

iPod Shuffle
Besides the iPod Nano, another product that Apple introduced to compliment its line of personal digital music players was the Shuffle. The Shuffle was released in early 2005. While it is known as the budget model of the Apple line up, it does offer a product for those consumers that are looking for a basic music player in a very small form. The Shuffle utilized flash memory just like the Nano, but it didn't have all the bells and whistles like the Nano. The first generation Shuffle had no screen and a simple click wheel. It also had a form like many USB drives which allowed it to be directly inserted into a USB port to download music. Storage was small for the Shuffle. The first generation came with either 512 MB or 1 GB of storage capacity.
The second generation of the Shuffle was known as the clip. It was released in September of 2006 and it came in a multitude of colors. The clip was even smaller than the original shuffle at half the size. It literally clipped onto your clothing or hid in a pocket, perfect for people with active lifestyles. It also didn't have a screen, but the interface was easy to use. However, it now required an included dock to connect to a computer.
The third generation of the Shuffle which was announced in March of 2009 is the smallest Shuffle to date. This Shuffle utilizes text to speech to alert the wearer which song is playing- since there is no display. The unit is so small that the controls are located on the right ear bud cable. The storage capacity of this device is 4 GB.
The iPod Touch

iPod Touch
While not an iPod, the iPhone which has become widely popular included a fully featured player with a large screen, flash memory and a wide variety of bells and whistles. The form of the iPhone was so popular that Apple decided it could also sell an iPod based upon the iPhone. The iPod Touch is this creation. The Touch offers those that like the touch screen of the iPhone as the user interface for this music player. In fact, the Touch looks pretty much identical to the iPhone and while it doesn't have many of the iPhone features it is less costly and does not require a phone contract. The Touch also offers video playback and wifi including the Safari browser which makes it easy to connect to iTunes and download music directly wirelessly to your Touch. Storage for the Touch comes in either 8 GB, 16 GB or 32 GB flash memory making it solid state.
There is a second generation of the iPod Touch, however the styling for the most part has stayed the same (a slight tapering of the back). The 2G Touch offers additional features such as Nike+ functionality, a built in speaker and buttons to control volume.
Histórias Relacionadas:
History of Computers
Obviously one of the great inventions of our time has been the computer. Today, billions use computers in their daily life. While the first computers were extremely large and took up entire rooms, today, computers are extremely small and can not only fit on your desktop, but in your phone and on chips the size of grains of rice. Throughout the years, the computer has evolved from an extremely expensive, cumbersome and slow device to today's extremely smart and quick machines with incredible processing power.
Here is the history of computers.
The First Computer
While there was no single person that is widely credited with inventing the computer, many view Konrad Zuse and his Z1 machine as the first in a long line of innovations that have given us the computer of today. Konrad Zuse was a German whose claim to fame is the creation of the first freely programmable mechanical computing device in 1936. Many would see Zuse's Z1 as the first of a long line of calculators. Zuse found that one of the most difficult aspects of completing large calculations on the calculation devices of the day (a slide rule or mechanical adding machine) was the ability to keep track of the many results that would then have to be recomputed to give a final answer. Zuse's Z1 was created with a focus on 3 basic elements that are still necessary in today's calculators- it is necessary to have a control, it is necessary to have a memory to store results of each step and it is necessary to perform calculations.

Zuse Z1
In later additions of his Zuse computer, Konrad Zuse created the Z2 and Z3. The innovations to his computers were quite important. The Z2 was the first fully functioning electro- magnetic computer and the Z3 was the first fully electronic and digital computer that included the ability to be programmed. The Z3 was programmed with a binary floating point number and switching system. It even included storage which used tape in the form of old movie reels. In those days most business machines used punched paper, however in Germany at the time, paper was extremely expensive.
The Harvard Mark I Computer
With World War II blazing on, the US government realized that it needed to be more innovative than ever in order to gain the upper hand. At major universities across America, many scientists and mathematicians worked hard on innovating new ways to keep up with the technology that was quickly advancing. Much of the focus was on making rockets and ballistics more precise- which required complex calculations. At Harvard, the first of the MARK series computers were being built. The MARK I began in 1944. This computer was absolutely huge and filled a room that was 55 feet long by 8 feet high. It contained an amazing array of components. In fact, in all it had over 760,000 parts. It was loud and clicked and clanged like a huge factory. However, the MARK 1 turned out to be a success. It was utilized by the US Navy for calculations of ballistics. It performed well for the next 15 years, being in service till 1959.

The MARK I used pre punched paper tape, it could perform a wide variety of calculations including addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and it was able to hold and reference a previous result used in its calculations. It even had the capability to compute numbers with up to 23 decimal places. As for the vastness of this machine, it was not only loud and had hundreds of thousands of parts, but included 500 miles of wire. While the computer itself was high tech for its time, the output was not digital, the MARK 1 used a simple electric typewriter to display results. Speed was also lacking with a typical multiplication computation taking from 3 to 5 seconds.
The ENIAC Computer
The ENIAC computer is known as being one of the most important achievements in computing. The computer was commissioned during WWII and it was originally commissioned and used by the US military for ballistics research for computing tables. The ENIAC stands for Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It was developed by John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert. While John Mauchly created several previous calculating machines, this machine would be different. The ENIAC would use vacuum tubes instead of electric motors and levers to speed up calculations. ENIAC was originally designed starting in 1943, however it wasn't built and ready for operation until 1946. The total cost of the ENIAC was $500,000. While it was originally built for ballistics it was used for a whole host of issues including weather, random number studies and even wind tunnel design. The ENIAC had an enormous amount of vacuum tubes- over 14,000 and included 70,000 resistors and over 5 million soldered joints. It covered a space of 187 square meters and weighed over 30 tons. This computer was enormous.

ENIAC
Regarding speed, the ENIAC was blazing fast for the technology in those times. It one second, the ENIAC could perform 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications or 38 divisions. The speed of the ENIAC was about 1,000 times faster than any other calculating device during that era. The ENIAC stayed in operation until 1955.
The First Random Access Memory (RAM)
In 1946, RAM was first introduced and started to be utilized as an effective data storage device. While the ability to use a cathode ray tube were being studied for several years, the Williams tube was the first RAM to be utilized in computers. RAM or Random Access Memory is an easy way to store computer instructions that can be used over and over by the computer without unnecessary programming. The first RAM was actually a metal detector plate that was in position close to a vacuum tube which detected the difference in electrical charges. On a CRT screen, one can see the difference between these charges as either a dot or pixel of green or black- this in essence was binary code either 0 or 1. With the advent of RAM, rewiring each time a new program was installed was no longer necessary and programming itself became more convenient and quicker. This type of memory was used until core memory took over in 1955.
The Manchester Baby and Manchester MARK I
With plenty of innovations taking place in the 1940's after the war, faster and more complex computers were being built on both sides of the Atlantic. England had its own successes with early computers specifically the Manchester Baby and the Manchester MARK I. The Manchester Baby was developed by Telecommunications Research Establishment and it decided to build a computer based on the Williams tube. One of the designers Tom Kilburn devised an even more impressive way to storing data than the current Williams tube was able to handle. Kilburn's new innovation allowed the storage capacity to include 2048 bits of information. The Manchester Baby was the first computer to use a stored program, it went live in 1948.
The Manchester MARK I
Besides the Manchester Baby, the Manchester MARK I was commissioned to be built and in 1951 the Manchester went live. The Manchester built upon the successes of the day's computers and while it showed tremendous progress against computers built just a few years ago, it also showed researchers that there was also enormous potential for the computer.
The UNIVAC
Besides the ENIAC, one of the most popular computers of the past is the UNIVAC. The UNIVAC stands for Universal Automatic Computer. It was built and developed by those that created the ENIAC computer. Instead of working for the US military, the UNIVAC was first sold to the US Census Bureau that required a computer for complex computations dealing with the explosion in the US population. In 1946, the US Census Bureau gave a $300,000 deposit for the development and creation of the UNIVAC. It was stated in the contract that it would pay no more than $400,000 for the computer, however falling into financial difficulties and cost over runs, the UNIVAC was delivered at the cost of 1,000,000 dollars. In fact, the UNIVAC was now owned by the Remington Rand Corporation which sold the first UNIVAC at a loss in the hopes that later sales of the computer would pay back their initial investment.

The UNIVAC computer was extremely cutting edge for its day. It was fast and able to handle many computations. In fact, it can add in 120 microseconds, multiply in 1,800 micro seconds and divide in 3,600 microseconds. It was also able to read characters that were fed via magnetic tap at a speed of 12,800 characters per second. All in all it was one of the fastest and most innovative computers of its day. In fact, the UNIVAC received public praise and notoriety when it was used to predict the next president of the United States.
IBM and the Computer
IBM today is known for bringing the first widely affordable and available personal computer (PC) to the masses, however earlier in the 20 th century they were widely known for their punch card business machines such as calculators. The first IBM general purpose computer was the IBM 701. In 1953, the 701 was developed in part due to the Korean War. The goal was that a computer was needed in helping to compute and keep track of the effort of policing Korea. The IBM 701 not only delivered one computer for the Korean War cause, but built 19. Some went to atomic research, others went to aircraft companies and research facilities including the US Weather Bureau. At the time, a company or large organization could rent the 701 for $15,000 per month. It was built with storage tubes for memory and used magnetic tape to store information. It also should be noted that the new computer language FORTRAN was utilized in the new 701.

IBM 701
Besides the IBM 701, there were other IBM computers to follow including the 704, the first super computer to utilize floating point hardware and a magnetic core memory that was much faster than magnetic drum stored memory. The IBM 7090 also was a big success being IBM's first commercial transistorized computer. It was built in 1960 and was the fastest computer of its day. IBM capitalized on the 7090 and it dominated business computers for the next 20 years.
The Integrated Circuit – The Chip
One of the biggest innovations to the computer was the integrated circuit (IC) or the chip as it is now known. In fact, the chip has made the computer extremely powerful and affordable so that practically everyone in the world today can own a computer. The chip has had an enormous influence on reducing the cost of the computer, literally cutting it by a factor of a million to one.
The chip was actually invented by two different entities at about the same time without either entity knowing about the other. However, both companies were extremely smart and combined their licensing agreements to take advantage of the huge market for the technology. In the first few decades of computer creation, in order to make a computer more powerful or add innovation, it usually required more and more parts, however with a chip, everything can be placed on an extremely small piece of silicon.
The first commercial integrated circuits or chips were sold in 1961. While first bought up by the military they later were used in the first mobile calculators. While the first chip had one transistor, three resisters and one capacitor which fit on a space less than a square inch, today's chips are much smaller and can hold more than 125 million transistors.
The First Microprocessor- A Computer on a Chip by Intel Corp.
While the IC chip (integrated circuit) was already developed, Intel was the first to put a complete microprocessor or computer on a single chip. The first Intel chip to do so was the 4004.

Intel 4004
The 4004 was able to put a central processing unit, memory, input and output controls on one super small chip. This chip had huge implications to almost anything digital and as the years went on, Intel was able to create smaller, more powerful chips that actually cost less. The personal computer of today has the Intel 4004 chip to thank for its ability to be incredibly powerful and affordable for the consumer.
The First Consumer Computers
If you wanted to use a computer in the 1960's or 1970's, these huge devise were not only very rare- only available to students and researchers at major universities, but extremely costly to run. However, for those that were interested and fascinated by computers, most were looking for ways to own their very own affordable computer. One of the first consumer computers to hit the market was the MITS Altair 8800. It was developed in 1973 and 1974 and was first sold in 1975 as the “World's First Minicomputer Kit to Rival Commercial Models”. The computer included an 8080 CPU, 256 byte RAM card and a new bus that had 100 pins. It was a kit, so it needed to be put together by the customer and sold for $400.
The First Apple Computers
During the mid 1970's, there were plenty of hobby computers for sale however many were difficult to put together, had plenty of indistinguishable switches and must be programmed using difficult languages. Steve Wozniak was a computer hobbyist and started Apple Computers with his friend Steve Jobs. At first they showed off the Apple I computer. The Apple I came equipped with a single circuit board, video interface, 8K of RAM, a keyboard and was made with affordable components including the 6502 processor that cost only $20.

Apple 1
While about 200 Apple I computers were sold in 1976, in 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire, the Apple II was released with many of the same components, an increase of RAM and a floppy disk drive. While the first Apple computer sold for $666.66, the second was a little more polished and more expensive selling for $1,298.
1977 Was a Banner Year for the Home Computer
During 1977, Apple II, Commodore Pet and the Radio Shack TRS80 all became available for the home. With both Apple II and TRS80 computers using floppy disk drives, it now made it easier for software developers to create and sell programs to the masses. One company that started to grow and even trademarked their name in 1977 was Microsoft.
The IBM PC
IBM has had an enormous influence on the computers that we use today. While many computers that IBM first created were for defense or for large government organizations and corporations, IBM started to notice that there was a tremendous amount of demand building up for home computers in the 1970's. In the late 1970's and into 1980 IBM developed a personal computer known as the PC. It went on to be released to the public in August of 1981. The IBM PC grabbed the attention of the public and many businesses that realized that since IBM was selling PC's to the public, there must be real demand.

IBM PC
Out of the PC came numerous companies that innovated the PC. And since the IBM PC was based on off the shelf parts and had an open architecture, many businesses would be able to support and even start to build computers of their own. The first IBM PC had a 4.77 MHZ Intel 8088 microprocessors, 16 KB of RAM, two 160K floppy drives and even an optional color monitor. While the price was still on the expensive end- $1,565, many hailed this as the beginning of the home computing market.
The Apple Macintosh
While the IBM PC definitely took off, not only for consumers, but small and medium businesses, Apple computers still continued to be dominant in the market. In 1984, the Apple Macintosh was released. The Apple Macintosh while not an immediate success in sales as the company hoped for, did have one of the first GUI (graphical user interfaces) that made computing much more attractive and easy to use. In addition, the Apple Macintosh also had an 8 MHZ processor, 128K of RAM, a floppy disk drive and a monitor, it went into production from January of 1984 to October of 1985 and cost around $2,500. However, it lacked in memory and was difficult to use with its one single floppy disk drive.
Microsoft Windows- Software Sells Computers
With the personal computer market starting to build up steam in the early and mid 80's many companies realized that a graphical user interface was the best way to operate and perform tasks on a computer easily. While several companies created operating systems for PC's, none stuck, because there was no support. However, Microsoft had the backing of the computer makers specifically IBM which helped them legitimize their product and sell their OS Windows. It should be noted that Apple did not license out either its hardware or software to third parties reducing the growth of their computer market share. Windows was originally announced late in 1983, but didn't come to market until two years later with Windows 1.0.

Bill Gates - Microsoft Windows 1.0
With the later editions of Windows, 2.0 and 3.0 Microsoft included desktop icons and many of the features that are now a staple of home computing today. During the late 80's WISYWIG programs (what you see is what you get) were introduced including updates of word processing software and updated spreadsheet programs to make these computer programs for home and small businesses easier and more powerful to use.
The Computers of Today
A lot has changed since IBM introduced its first PC. Today, computers have infiltrated into practically every aspect of our lives. Today, computers are extremely powerful, extremely small and more affordable than ever. With the advent of the internet in the late 60's and the growth of the world wide web decades later, the computer is used as a powerful tool to communicate and conduct commerce.

In fact, the computer has been a tremendous engine in world wide growth and has helped raise the quality of life for potentially billions of people. As the computer becomes more and more sophisticated and morphs with a wide variety of other aspects of our lives, where and how the computer will continue to evolve is still unimaginable.
Learn how to buy a computer .
As a final shot, let me leave you with a cool video of the First Google Server .
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