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최근 Histories
- 홈
- 피사의 사탑의 역사
- 부채 국립 역사의
- 주문 이그 제 큐 티브 역사의 대통령
- 세그웨이 역사
- 타이타닉의 역사
- 토니 블레어 역사
- 수박의 역사
- 윌 스미스의 역사
- Kokopelli의 역사
- 에펠 타워 역사
- 풍요의 뿔 역사
- Tecumseh의 역사
- 선생님의 역사 에드먼드 힐러리
- 삼바의 역사 음악
- 대통령 사면 역사
- 캠페인 대통령 역사
- 오페라의 팬텀 역사
- 땅콩 버터의 역사
- 퍼레이드의 역사
- 기상학의 역사
- 기념관의 역사 데이
- 주니어, 역사의 마틴 루터 킹
- 통화 기금 역사 국제
- 라이베리아의 역사
- 아이스 스케이트의 역사
- Adarna을 Ibong의 역사
- 디저트의 역사
- 동그라미 자르기의 역사
- 부토 Benazir 역사
- 아메리카 은행의 역사
- 애틀랜타 팔콘의 역사
- 아놀드 슈워제네거의 역사
- 아담의 역사 Sandler
- 쌍둥이 자리의 역사 로그인
- Pringles의 역사
- Discman의 역사
- 기술의 역사
- 화성 역사 초콜릿
- 배구의 역사
- 전화 역사
- 베를린 장벽의 역사
- 미키 마우스의 역사
- 스니커즈의 역사 캔디 바
- 에이즈의 역사
- 휴대폰 휴대폰의 역사
- 바비 인형의 역사
- 발레의 역사
- 알래스카의 역사
- 디즈니랜드의 역사
- 이메일의 역사
Tocobaga의 인디언의 역사
Tocobaga 인디언 플로리다 탬파 베이의 부근에 살았던 사람들이 아메리칸 인디언 부족, 고고 학적 세인트 Petersberg, 탬파, 안전 하버, 그리고 주변 지역에서 발견된 유골을 들고 있었다. 부족은 생선에 subsisted간에 그들이 지방, 또는 먼 부족과 무역의 마초 수있는 해양 부족했다. Tocobaga는 다양한 클래스의 카스트 제도 다른 문화권에서 중세 유럽과 인도와 같은 힌두교의 발견과 비슷한 사이에 병원에 사회 불평등과 고도로 발달한 사회 구조를 chiefdoms 주위에 기반했다.
12,000 주위에 북미 지역에서 인도 사람들이 14,000년 전에이 플로리다 반도로 이동,이 사람들은 유목하고 있었 거의 영구적인 존재가되는 사냥꾼 모은 정보를 세웠습니다. 4000 년 전 네이티브 아메리칸 인디언 부족으로 해안 지역을 따라 남쪽 특히 정착을 구축하기 시작했습니다. 주변 기원전 550 Manasota 문화 세기 일 있었어요되는 제 9 회 또는 설립 8 개발 종교적 관습을 마지막까지 계속 그들의 알려진 합의가 사라진 언젠가.
아무도 어떤 Manasota 문화에 일어난 일을 알고, 그들이 지역으로 이동 Mississippian 부족, 또는 그들은 그들의 이전 가정 버리고 떠날 죽었죠 흡수 했죠? 탬파 베이 지역은 이전에 Manasota 문화의 북쪽 한계하지만 Manasota 문화와 같은 시간에하던 Tocobaga 인디언이 사라진 건물 도시와 탬파 베이 주변 합의를 시작하고 살아남은 문화 구축을 통해 스페인어 식민지 시대.
Tocobaga Mounds
지금 지역 안전 하버 시티로 알려진 중심 도시가 800 광고 안전 하버 문화에서 개발한 인도의 문화에 그 이름을 하신다는. 그것은 상호 교환 Tocobaga 인디언의 회원이되지 않은 외곽 지파 이후 두 개의 이름을 사용하는 잘못된 있지만 Tocobaga 인디언과 안전 하버 문화는 따라서 많은 동일한되고 간주됩니다 또한 안전 하버 문화의 일부 특징으로했다 어느과 자주 chiefdom의 성전 최고의 집을 만들어진 잘립니다 미드 순위의 건물입니다.
Tocobagan 인디언들은 사회가 연습 노예로 사람을했지만 주로 평화적인 것으로 믿고 있습니다 일반적으로 약간 개선의 기회를 자신의 계급의 더 높은 상태로 남아 있었다. 노예는 다른 종족에 대한 공습을 통해 얻은 있던 죄수의 복용, 그리고 증거가 각 chiefdom은 결혼은 귀족과 다른 chiefdom 한 여자 사이에 배열되어있다면 외부인 그들 사이에서 살 수있는 것이 제안합니다.
Tocobagan 마을은 고도로, 항상 큰 제기에 따라 어느 마을과 사원 그리고 서장님의 집을 만들게 될 미드 마운드 기능 것이다 중앙 광장 주변에 건설되고 구성되었다. 아래의 마운드, 그리고 광장의 가장자리 주위의 마을 귀족의 집을 있었다. 다른 마을의 가옥은 마을의 외곽에있는 것입니다. 참모가 Tocobagan 부족에 거룩한, 그들의 이익에 절대적인 존경을 요구하는 신들 유사 간주했고, 수석이 나타났습니다 때마다 그것은 다른 마을 위쪽으로 볼 강제로 자신의 위치를 강화하기 위해 고안되었다 순위의 건물을 생각됩니다.
초기 1500s Tocobaga 부족 사람들은 자신의 지평선에 스페인 탐험가의 함선을 통보하기 시작함으로써 1528 년 Tocobaga 인디언과 스페인 사이의 최초의 접촉을 Pánfilo 드 Narváez에 도착합니다. 정해진 플로리다 드 Narváez 주지사되어 임무를 네이티브 인디언을 정복에 착수 가졌어요. 역사는 그 드 Narvéaz 다섯 배송 및 탬파 베이 근처의 300 명은 방문과 항해 기억합니다. 전투가 거의 즉시 양쪽에 엄청난 손해와 파산. 행운이 그들의 편에, 드 Narváez과 거의 모든 그의 부하들이 사그라 배송로 돌아가려고 멸망과 아니지만 Pánfilo Narváez 드와 그의 부하의 약 절반이 지난 내륙으로 향하는 전에 Tocobaga를 얻고, 관리.
또 다른 탐색기, Hernando 드 소토가 1539에서 탬파 베이 지역을 방문하여 마을과 지역의 지파의 세부 평가를했다. 그의 방문은 작은 마을과 chiefdoms 대대 중위을 위협하지 않았 으면, 드 소토 적어도 우리에게 여러 작은 ribes Tocobaga 도메인 Guacozo, Vicela, Tocaste의 남쪽 경계에있는 생활의 이름을주지 아니지만 지적 루카, Uzita, Mocoso, 그리고 Pohoy.
이후 몇 년 동안 Tocabaga과 앞에서 설명한 마을이 끔찍한 질병을 유럽으로 가지고 고통 및 그들의 면역 시스템이 병에 대처하고, 대처 못한 그들의 인구를 대폭 줄일 수 있습니다. 그래서 약화는 Tocobaga 있던 1567 때 페드로 Menendez 드 Aviles, 20 부하와 전쟁 파티 훨씬 더 강력한 Calusa은 Tocobaga the Calusa와 전쟁에 가셨에 후손으로부터 Tocobaga에만 1500 여명을 부를 수 있었다 그들의 주요 거주지를 방어합니다.
Tocobaga는 탬파 베이 지역에서 지배적인 인디언 부족, 아직 1500 남자는 노련한 conquistadors 전투에 대해 일치하는 수도 있었을 텐데,하지만 다행히 the Tocobaga 스페인은 분위기에 대해 신속하게 아메리카를 통해 확장하는 데 싸우고 및 기본 폭동에 직면했다 거의 모든 콜로니. 질병 및 질병, 또는 어쩌면 그것 때문에에도 불구하고, Tocobaga과 Pohoy 국가 정기적으로 자신의 경계 스페인에 의해 이동하는 선두에 한번 그들을 짝사랑하고 모두 1612 년,에 불명예에서의 비참한 실패로 삶의 이벤트 스페인어 정착지를 습격 그 목표를 달성.
부족의 편견이 완전히 Pohoy 및 Tocobaga 전쟁을하고 근절하기 위해 열심히했다 있지만, Pohoy 자신 동종했다 후 100 년이 약간 넘었하기 (1718), 스페인어, 선교사는 세인트 오거 스틴에서 탬파베이 대부분의 인도 사람들을 개종 시키려고 노력 했었어요 함께 Calusa 몇 년 전에. 전쟁은 영국과 북쪽으로, 그리고 프랑스 서쪽으로는 스페인과 동맹을 맺고 또는 누구 기독교로 변환 있었 효과적으로 대부분의 인디언 부족을 파괴했다, 플로리다와 인디언의 massacres에서 스페인 식민지를 괴롭혀했다와 1760s the Tocobaga에 의해 속에서 있었던 아주 인디언의 소수의 남은.
그것은 플로리다의 유럽 식민지에 슬픈 기소 스페인은 마침내 자사의 주장을 포기하고 쿠바에수록 Tocobaga 마지막으로 스페인 사람들을 모두 대피 동의하면 1763에서 그들과 함께 갔다가 효과적으로 사람들이 존재하지 못하게 하는것 그것입니다. 아메리카 원주민은 현재 플로리다에서 가장 부분에 대한 살아있는 상태로 스페인과 원주민 인디언 과목 후에 왼쪽으로 마이 그 레이션했다.
관련 Histories :
에펠 타워의 역사
하나는 프랑스에서 가장 눈에 띄는 건축물의 에펠탑 코스 중 하나입니다. 사실, 그것은 세계에서 가장 인식할 수있는 구조입니다. 에펠탑 대표 이미지이지만 순수하고 프랑스어로 인식, 많은 사람이 상당히 획기적인의 전체 역사를 모르겠어요. 여기 에펠탑 뒤에있는 매혹적인 이야기이다.
에펠 타워는 원래 Universalle 박람회, 세계 박람회로 알려져 있습니다에 대한 1889-1887 년 동안의 건축되었다. 세계의 요금은 구체적으로 파리에서 프랑스에 민주주의를 가져온 프랑스 혁명 100 주년을 기념하여 개최되었습니다. 에펠탑 건축가 구스타프 에펠에 의해 세계 박람회에 대한 아치 게이트웨이로 배치 설계되었고 그리고 계속 챔프 드 화성 센 강 옆에 위치한합니다.
에펠탑은 1889, 31 살 때 취임 3 월 있으나 그것이 올해했다 열린 중 일 5 월 6 일에 공개. 이 악명 높은 타워에 관한 그냥 흥미로운 사실은 처음이다, 구스타브 에펠 바르셀로나의 도시, 스페인 범용 박람회 1888 년에 자신의 타워를 건설 싶었어요. 그러나 바르셀로나의 도시가 당시 생각 탑이 너무 비싸이었고, 도시의 스타일에 맞지도 않았습니다. 바르셀로나의 시청은 제안에 대해, 궁극적으로 구스타프 에펠은 파리의 도시 계획을 제출할 보내는 투표.
박람회 Universalle는 에펠탑 패닝 후과 눈 아프세요 - 어느 볼 것이 많은로 볼 오늘날 에펠탑은 파리에서 가장 많은 미적 아름다움을, 그러나 계획과 몇 년간에 건설의 원래 처음부터입니다 복음송 오늘처럼.
에펠탑은 위에 건설되었습니다 3 년 기간 1,887에서 1,889 사이. 약 300 남자의 도움으로,이 타워는 오늘 스탠드 1,063피트 높이 (324m)의 전체 높이에 지어졌습니다. 이것은 79 피트 (24 미터) 안테나가 추가된 년 후이 포함되어 있습니다. 그것은 종래의 마천루의 약 81 이야기입니다. 사실, 1930, 크라이슬러 빌딩이 지어졌습니다 초기 건축에서까지, 에펠탑이 가장 높은 사람이 세상에서 구조했다. 크라이슬러 빌딩은 1,047피트 (319m),하지만 에펠탑은 라디오 안테나의 추가가 없었 총했다.
자료 에펠 타워 사용된 컨스트럭트
에펠탑 밖으로 순수한 철 금속 철을 범벅이라는 구성되어 있습니다. 철분 18,000여 가지의 총 건설에 사용되었다. 철분이 조각은 함께 250 만 이상의 리벳으로 개최되었습니다. 철은 건설에 사용되는 약 7,300 톤의 무게. 그러나 이것은 에펠 타워, 플랫폼 - 거기 10,000 톤 이상의 세 합계란 포함한 총 중량의 전체 무게가되지 않습니다. 건설하는 동안 그것은 오직 한 사람이 죽었 주목해야한다. 탑을 구성하는 훨씬 더 일반적인 건물과는 다른, 같은 탑이 겨우 3 플랫폼에서 사용할 수있는 노천 구조입니다. 그러나 구스타브 에펠은 사망하고 최소로 부상을 유지하는 데 도움 안전 기능의 다양한 고용. 일부는 안전 그는 포함된 고용 : 이동식 준비, 화면과 경호 레일을 갖추고 있습니다.
그것은 그 구스타프 에펠이 타워의 디자인을 최소한의 저항을 바람에 결정하기 위해 수학을 사용하여 만들 주목해야합니다. 탑 자체가 얇고 열려있는 동안 이런 이유 타워의 맨 아래 4 지점은 부피와 강한입니다. 에펠 타워는 대부분 회색과 갈색 페인트 칠한 혼합입니다. 페인트의 약 50-60 톤의 매 7 년 정도에 대하여 녹의 구조를 보호하기 위해 사용됩니다.
의 타워 레벨 3
그 에펠탑의 세 가지 수준의 합계가 있습니다. 첫번째와 두번째 단계는 쉽게 계단이나 엘리베이터로 액세스할 수 있습니다. 타워 1 층에서, 하나는, 쇼핑, 심지어 음식과 음료 선택 가능 찾을 수 많은 명소를 소요될 수 있습니다. 두 번째 단계에서는, 당신은 기념품 가게, 전망대와 멋진 식사에 개인 입구를 찾을 수 있습니다. 세 번째 수준은 엘리베이터에 의해 액세스할 수 있습니다. 최상위 레벨에서, 당신은 발견할 것이다 두 개의 서로 다른 관찰 데크 - 하나의 내부와 외부의 하나. 또한, 당신과 구스타프 에펠의 원래 사무실의 표현 엔지니어의 사무실을 찾을 수 있습니다.
타워는 20 살 서서 원래 내장
원래 파리의 도시 임대를 그 에펠탑이 건설하고 20 년 동안 서서 서명했습니다. 사실,이 타워는 그렇게 만들어진 그것은 오히려 쉽게 분해 할 수 있습니다. 그러나, 수십년의 다음 두여, 파리 사랑에 타워,뿐만 아니라 타워 전송해 전파의 파동보다 실용적인 사용했다. 1900에서 1950으로의, 타워는 라디오 방송국 및 전신을 전송해에 활용했다. 거기에도 타워의 라디오 안테나에서 라디오 장비를 지내게 벙커 있던 탑의 앵커 달아 전선했다. 이 라디오 장비는 모두 군사 및 상업 기관 그리고 그것은 매우 유용한 것으로 판명하는 동안에 의해 활용되었다 차 세계 대전, 탑의 라디오 안테나는 유명한 스파이 마타 하리를 캡처하는 데 중요한 역할을했다. 나중에 몇 년 동안, 그것은 빔 텔레비전 신호와 오늘로 한 모든 프랑스에서 가장 방문한 건축물 중 하나입니다 사용되었습니다. 사실, 그 건설, 200 개 이상의 백만 최근 방문자 카운트가있는 타워를 (방문 이후 약 6,500,000 매년).
세월이 흘러
년 동안의 에펠탑은 프랑스의 문화와 역사에 큰 역할을 담당해 왔습니다. 1934-1925 년 동안의, 타워가에 전기 조명 광고판으로 사용되었다 시트로엥을 광고할. 2 차 세계 대전 중 독일군은 선전으로 타워를 사용했습니다. 히틀러는 에펠탑을 방문하기도 전에 1940 년 프랑스의 민족주의는 엘리베이터에서 리프트 케이블을 절단, 히틀러가 전망대에 계단을 걸어 올라 가야만했다 너무. 당시, 부품 케이블을 해결하기 위해했던 전쟁으로 인해 사용할 수 없습니다. 사실, 히틀러가, 바닥에 머물고 타워를 올랐다 절대. 많은 상태 히틀러가 프랑스를 정복,했지만 결코 에펠탑. 또한, 독일, 타워의 최상위 레벨에있는 거대한 만자 플래그를 올릴수가려고했는데, 바람이 불과 몇 시간 만에 타워에서 플래그를 날려 버렸어.
드디어 에펠탑 때 전쟁의 마지막 일, 히틀러가 일반 디트리히 폰 Choltitz, 그 당시 파리의 군사 총재 도시의 나머지 부분과 함께 타워를 철거했다 주문한 재앙을 막은. 그러나, 일반 디트리히 폰 Choltitz이 명령을 따르지 않았고 파리의 해방을 불과 몇 시간 이내에 연합군에 의해, 엘리베이터 리프트 케이블을 다시 탑이 곧 재개 노력하고 있었다.
오늘날, 에펠탑 문화 아이콘을 한 프랑스의 가장 사랑받는 명소 중되고 있습니다. 초기 일 에펠탑이있는 동안 계속해서 새로운 레스토랑과 상점으로 업데이 트해야합니다, 그것은 그대로 남아 있습니다 에센스.
관련 Histories :
아이팟의 역사
오늘은, 하나는 가장 인기있는 장치의 음악을 듣고 유비 쿼터스 아이팟입니다. 애플이 iPod의 유일한 많은 그들의 음악을 듣고, 또한 그들이 어떻게 그들의 음악과 미디어의 다른 유형을 구매하는 방식을 혁명 없습니다. 동안의 음악 플레이어가 개인적으로 많이 다른, 아무도 문화에 이러한 효과를 가져왔습니다, 음악 사업과 기술 . 여기에 아이팟의 역사입니다.
토니 Fadell와 그의 디지털 음악 플레이어
1990 년대 후반과 20 세기 초반 부분에서 디지털 음악 플레이어는 서서히 생성되고 있었다. 업계는 새로운 있던 기술이 정확하게 완성되지 않았습니다. 의 기쁨을 mp3를 그, 예를 들면 동안 수백만 발견해 지금은 1 년되었습니다 각각의 사람들이 컴퓨터의에, 많은 사람들이 깨닫게 그 주위에 하드 드라이브를 들고 음악이 기술적으로 가능했다하지가 못해요. 회사의 리오와 크리에이 티브와 같은 단지, 그러나 스토리지 개인 디지털 음악 플레이어의 진정한 잠재력을 깨닫기 시작했다하여 만든 최초의 MP3 플레이어가 문제가되었습니다. 최초의 MP3 플레이어는 노래를 재생할 수 소수 32 MB와 64 MB의, 단지 몇 번 정도의 저장 공간을했다. 또한, 사용자 인터페이스는 소니 워크맨이 아니라 차세대 디지털 음악 플레이어 이상과 같은 장치를했다. 그러나, 한 사람이 개인적인 디지털 뮤직 플레이어의 진정한 잠재력을 보셨습니까 그의 이름은 토니 Fadell했다.
토니 Fadell 2000에서 개인 디지털 음악 플레이어가 도청되고 놀라운 잠재력을 기다리는 것도 깨달았다. 꽤 많은 시간이 값비싼 콤팩트 플래시 스타일의 스토리지에 의존하는 모든 기존의 MP3 플레이어, 토니 Fadell은 저장 공간의 5 기가 제공하는 새로운 동전 크기의 하드 드라이브는 소비자가 음악의 전체 라이브러리의 가치 제공하기 위해 활용한다는 걸 알고는 있지만.
토니 Fadell - 애플을
또한, 냅스터의 출현과 그 법적 불황 전체 음악 업계에 영향을 미치는, 토니 Fadell은 그의 새 선수를 쉽게 소비자들이 쉽게 합법적으로 직접 플레이어로 다운 새로운 음악을 구입할 수있는 미디어 서비스를 통해 인터넷에 연결하여 상상 . 손에 이런 생각으로 그는 2000 년 전자 및 미디어 회사와 함께 판매 만나 시작했다. 그의 첫번째 정지는 리얼 네트웍스 있었다. 당시, 리얼 네트웍스는 온라인 미디어의 지도자였다. 그들은 그들의 사이트 하나 그들보다 더 유명한 제품에 판매되고 방문자의 수백만 및 미디어 제품의 광범위한했다 그들의 프리미엄 라디오와 텔레비전 채널했다. 불행하게도, 당시, 리얼 네트웍스의 아이디어 어려운 별도의 개인 음악 장치 언론들이 판매되던의 생성을 정당화하기 위해 찾는에 걸었어로 그것은 성공했다. 토니 Fadell 또한, 필립스 등 다른 회사지만, 그의 새로운 아이디어를 쳤다 궁극적으로 거절했다.
토니 Fadell의 접근 애플
그의 모험에 자신의 생각을 실현 얻을, 토니 Fadell 애플 갔어요. 당시, 애플 컴퓨터의 아이맥 라인에 집중했다. 그들은 (뉴턴 기억이) 과거에 가전 제품은, 성공은 보장되지 않았지만하게되었다. 정말 토니 Fadell의 생각에 대한 개인적인 디지털 음악 플레이어에 관한 몇 달 특히 유일한 이후 전 흥분하지만, 애플이 있었고, 애플 투자 Soundjam MP를 어떤 컴퓨터 또는 음악 플레이어에 디지털 음악을 직접 전달 수도라는 회사를 인수했다.
애플은 토니 Fadell에게 녹색 불빛이 자신의 프로젝트에 이른 2001 년에 시작했다. 애플은 또한 그에게 약 30 명 이상과 1 년 기한의 개발팀 플레이어를 만들어 주었다.
이것은 애플이 토니 Fadell에게 프로젝트에 녹색 불빛이 준 반면에 주목해야합니다, 그는 아직 애플에 자신감을 그들이 생성하고 처음부터 플레이어를 개발하고 싶은가 없었어요, 그래서 그 대신 주위를 회사 찾기로 결정했다 벌써 플레이어를 개발하고 창조를 작동합니다. 그는 회사를 PortalPlayer 전화를 발견. 이 회사는 이미지만 플레이어를 개발했다 그것은 아직 시장에 공개되지 않았습니다. 사실, PortalPlayer 여러 선수들이 있지만 그들 모두 Fadell가의 비전은, 그들은 끔찍한되었다 길어야 3 시간 지속 가난한 기능과 배터리 수명을했다 부족 년간 개발했다.
스티브 잡스와 개발의 아이팟
스티브 잡스
그것은 스티브 잡스는 아이팟에 애초부터 관심을 맡았어요 그리고 그는 현재 일년 내내 회의의 많은 개발 기간 동안에 주목해야한다. 그는 또한 제품을 테스트 그의 좋아하는과 인터페이스 등에 관한 싫어하는 표현거야
약 8 달 시간 있음, Fadell과 PortalPlayer는 새로운 아이팟의 작업 하드웨어를 함께 넣어. 반대쪽에, 애플과 악명 될 스크롤 휠 인터페이스를 개발했습니다. 이 제품은 준비가 10 월에 2001 년 시작된 것이었다.
제 1 세대 아이팟
원래 아이팟는 지난달 23 2001 년 판매를위한 릴리스되었습니다. 제 1 세대는 5기가바이트 도시바 하드 드라이브, ARM의 프로세서, Pixo, 추가 배터리 수명, 고해상도 디스플레이와 과정에 대해 스크롤 휠 - 그러나 1 세대의 스크롤 휠 기계했다 리튬 폴리머 배터리에서 운영 체제를 포함 아이팟. 업계의 많은 동안 최초의 통지를이 선수의 중요성에, 스크롤 휠, 대용량 스토리지 및 매우 직관적인 인터페이스는 매우 쉽게 음악 라이브러리를 보유하고 노래를 당신이 연주하고 싶은 발견 만들지 못했어요.
다른 플레이어로 대용량 스토리지, 애플 아이팟을 포함 당시에 비해 많이에게 우위를 부여하는 것이 더 쉽습 이동되었습니다. 당시, 아무도 얼마나 중요 iPod가 Apple에 걸 깨달 았어, 음악 업계 및 소비자 전세계. 사실, 때 처음 출시된, 많은 장치의 부정에 댓글을. 그것은 비싼 400 달러에있었습니다, 스크롤 휠 외국 같았다과 아이팟과 호환되지되었습니다 마이크로 소프트 PC의. 그러나, 몇 달 시간에, 판매는 매우 아이팟 상쾌한 있었는 흥분 시장에 유럽에서 밖으로 롤백되었습니다. 나중에 1 세대에서보다 강력한 10기가바이트 도시바의 하드 드라이브를 사용할 수도했다.
1 세대 아이팟
2 세대는 2002 년 7 월 iPod의 도착을
두 번째 세대 아이팟,하지만 아무것도 이미 성공적인 1 세대에게 혁명의 주요 변경 사항 몇 번 봤지만, 아이팟. 일단, 스토리지 용량은 두 배로 현재 사용할 수 GB의 모델이 모두 10기가바이트 20 년되었습니다. 또한, 애플은 수 있도록 특별한 소프트웨어를 활용하고 있던 자신의 플레이어를 구입 당시의 메모를 데리고 자신의 Windows와 호환 아이팟. 애플은 지금의 PIM 소프트웨어를 포함하는 iPod의 창의 뮤직 매치를 통해과 호환. 애플은 뮤직 매치와 사업 계약을 iPod의 소유자를위한 법률의 음악 다운로드를 제공했다. 두 번째 세대는 확실히 견고한 제품되었습니다 아이팟과 매우 기간에 성공, 수평선에 새로운 아이팟 그러나와, 애플과 음악 업계가 얼마나 아이코닉 아이팟 깨닫게 될 것이다.
제 3 세대 애플 아이팟
제 3 세대 아이팟 제품의 완벽하게 재설계되었습니다. 그것은 성층권에 아이팟의 매출을 보낼 수있었습니다. 앞서하지만 문제의 3G iPod을 기계 부품을 활용 아이팟 완전히 고체 상태되었습니다. 모든 컨트롤과 스크롤 휠을 지금은 고체 상태되었습니다. 또한 케이스는 슬림화했다. 원래 아이팟은 bulkier했다. 애플은 많은 PC 사용자가 아이팟을 구입 실현과 함께, 그것은 USB 2.0과 FireWire와 호환 있던 새로운 독 커넥터를 추가했다. 다른 추가 사항은 강화 포함 포함하여 스토리지 : 10기가바이트, 15기가바이트, 20기가바이트 40 GB. 그리고 함께 재설계도 새 배터리는 소니의 리튬 이온 전지했다.
iTunes는 온라인도 넘어요
애플 않았지만 뮤직 매치와의 계약을 최초로 형성 동안 아이팟 소유자에게 다운로드 가능한 디지털 음악을 제공하는, 애플과 토니 Fadell 항상 생성하고 자신의 가게를 실행 아이팟 소비자에게 음악을 사용할 수 법적인 다운로드를 만들기 위해 여겼습니다. 이것은 현실 2003 년 6 월되었습니다. 원래 그것은 단지 이것들을 OSX에 플랫폼을, 몇 달 후 실행하기위한 시작하는 동안, iTunes는 Windows 사용자와 호환도했다.
iTunes는 iPod의 소유자 우주의 변화했다. 이제 그들은 쉽게 쇼핑을 할 수 직접 아이팟 음악 플레이어에 합법적인 디지털 음악을 다운로드합니다. 수백만의 노래를 사용할 수 메이저 레이블 지금은 현실과 그 성공에서 음악의 다양한 구입으로 전세계 음반 업계의 관심, 컴퓨터 산업 및 미디어 산업을 모두 움켜 잡았다.
4 세대 아이팟
풀 스윙에서 아이팟의 성공으로, 4 세대 아이팟은 2004 년 7 월에 릴리스되었습니다. 그것은 추가 기능과 희박해 사건과 스타일을 리뉴얼을 추가했습니다. 일부는 새로운 기능 4 세대에서 사용 가능한 새로운 컬러 화면, 능력 및 60 GB와 80기가바이트 모델을 포함하여 추가적인 스토리지 용량 사진을 볼 수 있습니다 포함된 iPod을. 또한, 보류 스위치 몇 가지 사소한 변경 사항이 있었다. 그것은 또한 새로운 아이팟 제품은 가장 중요한 것은 아이팟 미니를 발표했다 주목해야합니다.
세대 iPod에 5 일, 6 일
나중에 클래식 번째 세대 아이팟은 포함 5 일 생성 및 6 주로 남아 펌웨어 및 하드웨어 사소한 변화의 일부 동일합니다. 케이스는 많은 고전 아이팟 120 GB와 1백60기가바이트 그러나 1백60기가바이트이 단종된로 증가 스토리지 용량을 한 이전 모델보다 더 희박해 동안. 또한, 능력이 비디오를 재생하는 기능 등 추가되었습니다. 그것은 또한 지적되어야 그 시대에 흑인뿐 지금 은색 유용했던 아이팟 클래식 화이트.
아이 포드 미니
아이팟 미니는 2004 년에 광범위한 주목을 릴리스되었습니다. Mini는 클래식 아이팟의 작은 버전이고 그것은 히타치에 의해 개발되었다 더 작은 크기의 하드 드라이브를 이용했다. 하드 드라이브는 클래식의 하드 드라이브의 약 절반 크기했다. 그러나, 저장 용량은 상당히 작은 것이 었죠. 최초의 아이팟 미니는 4GB를, 완벽에 대한 당시의 저장소 크기를했던 그 많은 라이터와 무게와 형태가 필요하다고 다른 활동을 밖으로 작업에 사용되는 아이팟. 그것은 거의 동일한 인터페이스를 클릭 휠과 작은 크기의 화면이 포함되어 있습니다. 그것은 또한 블루, 그린, 핑크, 금과 은을 비롯한 5 매력적인 색상왔다. 그것은 원래 249 달러에 나열된. 는 골드 색상이 중단되었습니다에는 6 GB로,로 2G 아이팟 미니에 대한 저장소 크기를 승진 2 세대 아이팟 미니했습니다. The 2G 모델은 또한, 오디오 8 시간에서 18가는 확장된 배터리 수명을했다.
아이팟 나노
아이팟 미니는 작은 크기의 아이팟의 시작이었습니다. 스토리지뿐만 아니라 작은지고 있다고하지만 더 높은 용량을 제공합니다. 이것은 새로운 디지털 음악 플레이어의 형태는 훨씬 전에보다 작은 수도 의미. 애플은 기회를 매우 작은 형태로 완전히 작동하는 아이팟을 만들 수 몰수. 그 결과는 아이팟 나노했다.
아이팟 나노는 9 월에 2005 년 격찬을 릴리스되었습니다. 아이팟 나노 중반 수준 클래식 아이팟의 작은 버전의 양식을 선전하면서 디지털 음악 플레이어인데 메모리 플래시 메모리의 다른 종류를했다. 클래식 아이팟은 모든 움직이는 부분과 하드 드라이브가 있었을 때, 나노 모든 고체 상태되었습니다. 이것은없고 더 안정, 특히 당신이 흔들 그것 또는 그것을 드롭하게 부품을 이동하는 것을 의미합니다. 제 1 세대 아이팟 나노 흑인 아니면 백인에 와서 2 인치 컬러 화면을했다 및 1GB, 2GB의 4 GB의 저장 용량했다. 그것은 그것 또한 능력을 사진을 볼 수 있었 주목해야한다. 나노는 상당히 클래식, 나노의 무게보다 작은 불과 1.5 온스과 사건의 측정 이었으니까 : 0.27 인치 1.6 인치 3.5 인치, 두께. 현재 아이팟 나노 4 세대되었습니다.
The 2G는 아이팟 나노
1 년 늦어도 9 월 2006 년 출시는 2G 나노 실버, 블루, 그린, 핑크, 빨강과 검정 등 여러 색깔로했다. 그것은 또한 더 큰 저장 용량을 최대 8GB 다 가고 있었다.
The 3G는 아이팟 나노
제 3 세대 나노는 한번 더 부피가 보여주고 다시 설계되었습니다. 아직 매우 작은, 많은 사람들이 양식을 발견하는 동안 부족한. 그러나 추가 기능의 능력과 새로운 인터페이스 비디오를 재생하는 등 추가되었습니다. 스토리지는 8GB의 밖에서 나타났습니다.
The 4G 이동은 아이팟 나노를
제 4 세대 나노 몇 가지 약간의 변경 및 몇 가지 추가 색상을 더 또는 더 적은 비용으로 원래의 형태 정신을 돌아 보았다. 그것은 또한 당신이 어쩌다가을 흔들 수있는 가속도계 같은 일부 표현 기능을 포함하고 저장 공간을 최대 16기가바이트 모두 가고 덧붙였다.
iPod의 셔플
아이팟 셔플을
아이팟 나노 외에 다른 제품은 애플이 칭찬 개인 디지털 뮤직 플레이어의 라인을 도입 셔플되었습니다. 셔플은 2005 년 초에 월에 릴리스되었습니다. 그것은 애플 라인의 예산을 모델로 알려져 있지만, 그것은 매우 작은 형태로 기본적인 음악 플레이어 찾고있는 그 소비자를위한 제품을 제공 않습니다. 셔플은 나노처럼 플래시 메모리를 이용하지만, 그것은 모든 부속품 나노 같은 휘파람가 없었어요. 1 세대 셔플은 화면과 간단한 클릭 휠했다. 그것은 또한 직접 USB 포트에 음악을 다운로드하려면 삽입을 할 수 있도록 많은 USB 드라이브와 같은 양식을했습니다. 저장소 작은 셔플이었다. 첫 번째 세대 중 512 MB의 또는 스토리지 용량 1GB의와 함께.
셔플의 두 번째 세대는 클립으로 알려졌습니다. 그것은 2006 년 9 월에 릴리스되었습니다 그것은 색상의 다수에 왔어. 클립도 원래 어쩌다가 절반보다 작은 크기로했습니다. 그것은 말 그대로 당신의 의류에 이어이나 주머니에, 활동적인 라이프 스타일을 가진 사람을위한 완벽한 숨었. 그것은 또한, 그러나 스크린을하지 않은 인터페이스는 사용이 편리했다. 그러나, 지금은 포함된 도크를 컴퓨터에 연결하는 데 필요합니다.
셔플 2009년 3월에 발표했다의 3 세대 지금까지 가장 작은 셔플입니다. 이 셔플 연설을 노래가 재생되는 입은 경고 텍스트를 활용 - 아무 표시이기 때문이다. 단위 너무 컨트롤이 오른쪽 귀에 봉오리 케이블에 있습니다 작습니다. 이 장치의 저장 용량은 4GB입니다.
아이팟 터치
아이팟 터치
아니 아이팟, 널리 인기되어 아이폰은 대형 스크린, 플래시 메모리와 종과 경적의 다양한 특성을 갖춘 선수를 포함하는 동안. 아이폰의 형태는 아주 인기있는 애플은 또한 iPod을 아이폰에 따라 판매할 수있는 결정되었다. 아이 포드 터치가이 생성됩니다. 터치들은이 음악 플레이어의 사용자 인터페이스로 아이폰의 터치 스크린을 같이 제공합니다. 그것은 아이폰의 많은이없는 동안 사실, 터치 거의 동일 아이폰과 덜 비용이 많이 드는이며 전화 계약을 요구하지 않는 기능이 같습니다. 터치는 또한 비디오 재생과 쉽게 아이튠즈에 연결하고 무선으로 직접 터치로 음악을 다운로드하게 사파리 브라우저를 포함한 WiFi를 제공합니다. 스토리지는 터치 용도 8GB의, 16 GB 또는 32기가바이트 플래시 메모리에서 고체 상태를 만들어 온다.
그 아이팟 터치의 두 번째 세대는 대부분의 경우에, 그러나 스타일은이 같은 (약간 뒤쪽의 끝이 뾰족해진) 남아있다. 2G 터치는 나이키 + 기능, 스피커 및 버튼 내장 볼륨 조절과 같은 추가 기능을 제공합니다.
관련 Histories :
History of Computers
분명히 하나가 우리 시대의 위대한 발명품의 컴퓨터되었습니다. 오늘날 수십억들이 일상 생활에서 컴퓨터를 사용합니다. 최초의 컴퓨터가 매우 큰있는 동안, 그리고 전체 객실, 오늘을 차지, 컴퓨터가 매우 작고에만 바탕 화면에 맞지 않을 수 있지만 귀하의 휴대 전화에 칩에 쌀 알갱이의 크기. 수년 동안, 컴퓨터는 장치를 극단적으로, 성가신 비싸고 느린에서 믿을 처리 능력과 오늘날의 매우 영리하고 신속하게 기계에 진화했다.
여기에 컴퓨터의 역사입니다.
첫 번째 컴퓨터
거기에 널리 컴퓨터를 발명의 크레딧을 적용해없고 한 사람이있을 때, 많은 참조 Zuse 콘라드와 그의 Z1 기계하는데 우리에게 오늘날의 컴퓨터를 준 혁신의 긴 대열의 첫번째로. 콘라드 Zuse 있었 누구의 명성을 주장 1936 년에 처음으로 자유롭게 프로그래밍 가능한 기계적 컴퓨팅 장치를 만드는 것입니다 독일어. 많은 사람들이 볼 거란 계산기의 긴 줄의 처음 Zuse의 Z1입니다. Zuse 발견 한 오늘의 계산 장치 (슬라이드 규칙 또는 기계)는 기계를 추가하는 능력이 많은 결과를 그 다음 줄 recomputed이되어야 할것을 추적할 것이었다에 큰 계산을 수행의 가장 어려운 양상의 최종 대답. Zuse가의 Z1 아직이 필요합니다 3 기본 요소에 중점을두고 만들어진 오늘날의 계산기 - 그럴 필요는 컨트롤을 가지고있다, 그것은 필요한 메모리를 각 단계의 결과를 저장하는 것입니다 그리고 그것은 필요한 계산을 수행하는 것입니다.
Zuse Z1
그의 Zuse 컴퓨터의 나중에 추가 있음, 콘라드 Zuse의 Z2와 Z3를 만들었습니다. 자신의 컴퓨터에 혁신은 매우 중요했다. The Z2는 완전 전자 마그네틱 컴퓨터를 작동하고 Z3 먼저 완전히 전자 및 디지털 컴퓨터 능력을 포함 처음이 프로그램되어 있어야합니다. The Z3은 이진 부동 소수점으로 짜여졌다 및 시스템 전환. 심지어 옛날 영화 릴의 형태로 테이프를 사용하여 스토리지를 포함. 그 당시에는 대부분의 기업 기계, 그러나 독일의 시간에 종이를 때린 사용되는 종이는 매우 비쌌습니다.
하버드 마크 내가 컴퓨터
2 차 세계 대전과에 타오르는 미국 정부는 그것이 무엇보다 혁신적인 순서 우위를 얻을 수있을 필요가 깨달았다. At major universities across America, many scientists and mathematicians worked hard on innovating new ways to keep up with the technology that was quickly advancing. Much of the focus was on making rockets and ballistics more precise- which required complex calculations. At Harvard, the first of the MARK series computers were being built. The MARK I began in 1944. This computer was absolutely huge and filled a room that was 55 feet long by 8 feet high. It contained an amazing array of components. In fact, in all it had over 760,000 parts. It was loud and clicked and clanged like a huge factory. However, the MARK 1 turned out to be a success. It was utilized by the US Navy for calculations of ballistics. It performed well for the next 15 years, being in service till 1959.
The MARK I used pre punched paper tape, it could perform a wide variety of calculations including addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and it was able to hold and reference a previous result used in its calculations. It even had the capability to compute numbers with up to 23 decimal places. As for the vastness of this machine, it was not only loud and had hundreds of thousands of parts, but included 500 miles of wire. While the computer itself was high tech for its time, the output was not digital, the MARK 1 used a simple electric typewriter to display results. Speed was also lacking with a typical multiplication computation taking from 3 to 5 seconds.
The ENIAC Computer
The ENIAC computer is known as being one of the most important achievements in computing. The computer was commissioned during WWII and it was originally commissioned and used by the US military for ballistics research for computing tables. The ENIAC stands for Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It was developed by John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert. While John Mauchly created several previous calculating machines, this machine would be different. The ENIAC would use vacuum tubes instead of electric motors and levers to speed up calculations. ENIAC was originally designed starting in 1943, however it wasn't built and ready for operation until 1946. The total cost of the ENIAC was $500,000. While it was originally built for ballistics it was used for a whole host of issues including weather, random number studies and even wind tunnel design. The ENIAC had an enormous amount of vacuum tubes- over 14,000 and included 70,000 resistors and over 5 million soldered joints. It covered a space of 187 square meters and weighed over 30 tons. This computer was enormous.
ENIAC
속도에 대해서는 ENIAC 그 시대의 기술에 대한 타오르는 빠른했습니다. It one second, the ENIAC could perform 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications or 38 divisions. The speed of the ENIAC was about 1,000 times faster than any other calculating device during that era. The ENIAC stayed in operation until 1955.
The First Random Access Memory (RAM)
In 1946, RAM was first introduced and started to be utilized as an effective data storage device. While the ability to use a cathode ray tube were being studied for several years, the Williams tube was the first RAM to be utilized in computers. RAM or Random Access Memory is an easy way to store computer instructions that can be used over and over by the computer without unnecessary programming. The first RAM was actually a metal detector plate that was in position close to a vacuum tube which detected the difference in electrical charges. On a CRT screen, one can see the difference between these charges as either a dot or pixel of green or black- this in essence was binary code either 0 or 1. With the advent of RAM, rewiring each time a new program was installed was no longer necessary and programming itself became more convenient and quicker. This type of memory was used until core memory took over in 1955.
The Manchester Baby and Manchester MARK I
With plenty of innovations taking place in the 1940's after the war, faster and more complex computers were being built on both sides of the Atlantic. England had its own successes with early computers specifically the Manchester Baby and the Manchester MARK I. The Manchester Baby was developed by Telecommunications Research Establishment and it decided to build a computer based on the Williams tube. One of the designers Tom Kilburn devised an even more impressive way to storing data than the current Williams tube was able to handle. Kilburn's new innovation allowed the storage capacity to include 2048 bits of information. The Manchester Baby was the first computer to use a stored program, it went live in 1948.
The Manchester MARK I
Besides the Manchester Baby, the Manchester MARK I was commissioned to be built and in 1951 the Manchester went live. The Manchester built upon the successes of the day's computers and while it showed tremendous progress against computers built just a few years ago, it also showed researchers that there was also enormous potential for the computer.
The UNIVAC
Besides the ENIAC, one of the most popular computers of the past is the UNIVAC. The UNIVAC stands for Universal Automatic Computer. It was built and developed by those that created the ENIAC computer. Instead of working for the US military, the UNIVAC was first sold to the US Census Bureau that required a computer for complex computations dealing with the explosion in the US population. In 1946, the US Census Bureau gave a $300,000 deposit for the development and creation of the UNIVAC. It was stated in the contract that it would pay no more than $400,000 for the computer, however falling into financial difficulties and cost over runs, the UNIVAC was delivered at the cost of 1,000,000 dollars. In fact, the UNIVAC was now owned by the Remington Rand Corporation which sold the first UNIVAC at a loss in the hopes that later sales of the computer would pay back their initial investment.
The UNIVAC computer was extremely cutting edge for its day. It was fast and able to handle many computations. In fact, it can add in 120 microseconds, multiply in 1,800 micro seconds and divide in 3,600 microseconds. It was also able to read characters that were fed via magnetic tap at a speed of 12,800 characters per second. All in all it was one of the fastest and most innovative computers of its day. In fact, the UNIVAC received public praise and notoriety when it was used to predict the next president of the United States.
IBM and the Computer
IBM today is known for bringing the first widely affordable and available personal computer (PC) to the masses, however earlier in the 20 th century they were widely known for their punch card business machines such as calculators. The first IBM general purpose computer was the IBM 701. In 1953, the 701 was developed in part due to the Korean War. The goal was that a computer was needed in helping to compute and keep track of the effort of policing Korea. The IBM 701 not only delivered one computer for the Korean War cause, but built 19. Some went to atomic research, others went to aircraft companies and research facilities including the US Weather Bureau. At the time, a company or large organization could rent the 701 for $15,000 per month. It was built with storage tubes for memory and used magnetic tape to store information. It also should be noted that the new computer language FORTRAN was utilized in the new 701.
IBM 701
Besides the IBM 701, there were other IBM computers to follow including the 704, the first super computer to utilize floating point hardware and a magnetic core memory that was much faster than magnetic drum stored memory. The IBM 7090 also was a big success being IBM's first commercial transistorized computer. It was built in 1960 and was the fastest computer of its day. IBM capitalized on the 7090 and it dominated business computers for the next 20 years.
The Integrated Circuit – The Chip
One of the biggest innovations to the computer was the integrated circuit (IC) or the chip as it is now known. In fact, the chip has made the computer extremely powerful and affordable so that practically everyone in the world today can own a computer. The chip has had an enormous influence on reducing the cost of the computer, literally cutting it by a factor of a million to one.
The chip was actually invented by two different entities at about the same time without either entity knowing about the other. However, both companies were extremely smart and combined their licensing agreements to take advantage of the huge market for the technology. In the first few decades of computer creation, in order to make a computer more powerful or add innovation, it usually required more and more parts, however with a chip, everything can be placed on an extremely small piece of silicon.
The first commercial integrated circuits or chips were sold in 1961. While first bought up by the military they later were used in the first mobile calculators. While the first chip had one transistor, three resisters and one capacitor which fit on a space less than a square inch, today's chips are much smaller and can hold more than 125 million transistors.
The First Microprocessor- A Computer on a Chip by Intel Corp.
While the IC chip (integrated circuit) was already developed, Intel was the first to put a complete microprocessor or computer on a single chip. The first Intel chip to do so was the 4004.
Intel 4004
The 4004 was able to put a central processing unit, memory, input and output controls on one super small chip. This chip had huge implications to almost anything digital and as the years went on, Intel was able to create smaller, more powerful chips that actually cost less. The personal computer of today has the Intel 4004 chip to thank for its ability to be incredibly powerful and affordable for the consumer.
The First Consumer Computers
If you wanted to use a computer in the 1960's or 1970's, these huge devise were not only very rare- only available to students and researchers at major universities, but extremely costly to run. However, for those that were interested and fascinated by computers, most were looking for ways to own their very own affordable computer. One of the first consumer computers to hit the market was the MITS Altair 8800. It was developed in 1973 and 1974 and was first sold in 1975 as the “World's First Minicomputer Kit to Rival Commercial Models”. The computer included an 8080 CPU, 256 byte RAM card and a new bus that had 100 pins. It was a kit, so it needed to be put together by the customer and sold for $400.
The First Apple Computers
During the mid 1970's, there were plenty of hobby computers for sale however many were difficult to put together, had plenty of indistinguishable switches and must be programmed using difficult languages. Steve Wozniak was a computer hobbyist and started Apple Computers with his friend Steve Jobs. At first they showed off the Apple I computer. The Apple I came equipped with a single circuit board, video interface, 8K of RAM, a keyboard and was made with affordable components including the 6502 processor that cost only $20.
Apple 1
While about 200 Apple I computers were sold in 1976, in 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire, the Apple II was released with many of the same components, an increase of RAM and a floppy disk drive. While the first Apple computer sold for $666.66, the second was a little more polished and more expensive selling for $1,298.
1977 Was a Banner Year for the Home Computer
During 1977, Apple II, Commodore Pet and the Radio Shack TRS80 all became available for the home. With both Apple II and TRS80 computers using floppy disk drives, it now made it easier for software developers to create and sell programs to the masses. One company that started to grow and even trademarked their name in 1977 was Microsoft.
The IBM PC
IBM has had an enormous influence on the computers that we use today. While many computers that IBM first created were for defense or for large government organizations and corporations, IBM started to notice that there was a tremendous amount of demand building up for home computers in the 1970's. In the late 1970's and into 1980 IBM developed a personal computer known as the PC. It went on to be released to the public in August of 1981. The IBM PC grabbed the attention of the public and many businesses that realized that since IBM was selling PC's to the public, there must be real demand.
IBM이 PC를
Out of the PC came numerous companies that innovated the PC. And since the IBM PC was based on off the shelf parts and had an open architecture, many businesses would be able to support and even start to build computers of their own. The first IBM PC had a 4.77 MHZ Intel 8088 microprocessors, 16 KB of RAM, two 160K floppy drives and even an optional color monitor. While the price was still on the expensive end- $1,565, many hailed this as the beginning of the home computing market.
The Apple Macintosh
While the IBM PC definitely took off, not only for consumers, but small and medium businesses, Apple computers still continued to be dominant in the market. In 1984, the Apple Macintosh was released. The Apple Macintosh while not an immediate success in sales as the company hoped for, did have one of the first GUI (graphical user interfaces) that made computing much more attractive and easy to use. In addition, the Apple Macintosh also had an 8 MHZ processor, 128K of RAM, a floppy disk drive and a monitor, it went into production from January of 1984 to October of 1985 and cost around $2,500. However, it lacked in memory and was difficult to use with its one single floppy disk drive.
Microsoft Windows- Software Sells Computers
With the personal computer market starting to build up steam in the early and mid 80's many companies realized that a graphical user interface was the best way to operate and perform tasks on a computer easily. While several companies created operating systems for PC's, none stuck, because there was no support. However, Microsoft had the backing of the computer makers specifically IBM which helped them legitimize their product and sell their OS Windows. It should be noted that Apple did not license out either its hardware or software to third parties reducing the growth of their computer market share. Windows was originally announced late in 1983, but didn't come to market until two years later with Windows 1.0.
Bill Gates - Microsoft Windows 1.0
With the later editions of Windows, 2.0 and 3.0 Microsoft included desktop icons and many of the features that are now a staple of home computing today. During the late 80's WISYWIG programs (what you see is what you get) were introduced including updates of word processing software and updated spreadsheet programs to make these computer programs for home and small businesses easier and more powerful to use.
The Computers of Today
A lot has changed since IBM introduced its first PC. Today, computers have infiltrated into practically every aspect of our lives. Today, computers are extremely powerful, extremely small and more affordable than ever. With the advent of the internet in the late 60's and the growth of the world wide web decades later, the computer is used as a powerful tool to communicate and conduct commerce.
In fact, the computer has been a tremendous engine in world wide growth and has helped raise the quality of life for potentially billions of people. As the computer becomes more and more sophisticated and morphs with a wide variety of other aspects of our lives, where and how the computer will continue to evolve is still unimaginable.
Learn how to buy a computer .
As a final shot, let me leave you with a cool video of the First Google Server .
관련 Histories :
History of Television
Television (TV) is a technology that enables the transmission of full motion broadcasts to remote receivers. A television is the device that is used to watch the broadcasts, and is also the name used for the entire process from filming to broadcast and receiving. These days TVs are ubiquitous in the western world and increasingly popular in less developed nations with estimates that by the middle of the 21 st century every home will have at least one television.
The idea of using television to entertain occurred quite late in the development of the technology, in fact the first uses for TV were thought to be more useful for telephones, Alexander Graham Bell the inventor of the telephone actually created a working photo phone in 1880. The late 1800s saw a number of technologies being tested and developed, personal photography, the use of electricity, radio broadcasts, the invention of telephones, and of course television, and whilst TV took longer to fully develop it certainly wasn'ta 20 th century invention.
The cathode ray tube, one of the most significant enabling technologies for television was actually invented in 1876 and used electricity forced thru a vacuum tube to produce light on the glass front. At the time electricity was still in its early stages of development so mechanical means of transmitting an image by using a metal disk perforated with viewing holes were developed in parallel.
The very first broadcast of a picture over remote distances occurred in 1926 in London when John Logie Baird, a Scotsman, and Charles Jenkins, an American, broadcast a series of small moving black and white images using mechanical means. Their signal was only 30 lines, much less than modern TVs at 525 lines, but is significant in that for the first time motion was broadcast wirelessly to a remote location.
The first television broadcasts were by todays standards basic, not much more than a moving slideshow of stick figures or photographs , but they proved the technology and were an important step in the development of ful motion. In 1927 Philo Farnsworth demonstrated the first electronic system with motion camera and broadcast abilities by transmitting a Hollywood film that had been projected in front of the TV camera.
His techniques, using fully electronic scanning of images was also used in April of 1927 by Bell Laborotories and the Department of Commerce to film a broadcast of Herbert Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce, in the first live broadcast of a person. Picture and sound was simultaneously broadcast using radio waves, in the same way that television is still broadcast today.
Television technology continued to develop over the next decade but at a slower pace after the initial demonstration broadcasts. Bell Laboratories, and RCA were actively investing in developing the entire broadcasting and receiving system for commercial gain and the race was on to be first to market. RCA's first major broadcasting breakthru came at the 1939 New York World's Fair, when RCA successfully broadcast the President's speech in black and white.
The second world war prevented the full development of TV although news was broadcast to the few who had a television, but the end of the war saw enormous interest in television from a public that was desperate for new consumer goods. Commercial broadcasting began in 1947 with NBC, ABC and then CBS competing for viewer loyalty using shows that had been successful on network radio as their first foray into television.
The first shows purposely written for television were the highly popular children's show Howdy Doody, the Texaco Star Theater, and then the Ed Sullivan Show all of which managed to capture huge audiences and helped spur the growth of television as an entertainment medium. Ba the middle of the 1950s over half of all American homes had a television, so much so that the bigger networks started noticing a substantial decline in radio listeners.
Network television in the US was not alone in experiencing huge growth over radio, in the United Kingdom, France, Germany and other developed nations similar growth in the demand for television was starting to be seen. At the time technology standards in the US had been settled since after the war based on older technology, a system known as NTSC which was in use in the US, Canada and Japan. Europe which was several years behind the US decided to implement a different more modern system they called PAL leading to compatibility issues.
The 1960s were a pivotal year for television. John F Kennedy was elected president primarily on his spectacular television performance. Television had finally reached maturity as a platform for bother entertainment and news, and now also as a platform for political coverage and debate. This despite the uncertainty of the McCarthy years of the 1950s when many of TV land's most prominent commentators and hosts had been forced off air.
The second major development of television in the 1960s was the introduction of color in 1964, a revolution that transformed the world. For the first time, audiences could see shows, musicals, documentaries, and news broadcasts as if they were right there. Wildlife documentaries and current affairs progams benefited most with the audience finally able to appreciate the beauty and horror of the world from the comfort of their living rooms.
With color television available and quickly overtaking black and white as the medium of choice, the impact of watching TV started to be felt. In some instances it became a force for good, with notable successes such as Sesame Street , a children's show with special educational value being launched. At other times TV has been considered a force of evil by fringe groups determined to protect their traditional family values.
Of course television's most important contribution to humankind has been the relative ease of bringing distant people together using satellite uplinks, the very first of which saw the Home Box Office screen Mohammed Ali's Thrilla from Manila live to US audiences in 1975. Cable and satellite television quickly enabled networks to increase their reach, across national boundaries as well.
In the 1980s the high definition television standard with over double the number of lines at 1125 was ratified but has yet to gain any real market share and as Internet TV increases in popularity many within the industry are suggesting HDTV may end up being restricted to camera equipment with viewers opting to use computer monitors and projectors. The future of TV could be very different from the first 90 years of the history of television.
Learn more about the History of Satellite Television .
관련 Histories :
History of Photography
Photography is a relatively new discipline that involves capturing a scene using a lens to focus light onto film or the CCD of a digital camera. Since it's invention in the 19 th century, photography has become one of the world's most popular hobbies, and cameras are as ubiquitous as jewelry when phones and laptop computers with built-in cameras are added.
As long ago as the 5 th century BC Chinese philosophers were experimenting with pinhole lenses and creating cameras obscura, a technique that enabled a dark room to display a color reverse image of the scene outside the room using light entering a pinhole lens. A hundred years later in Greece Aristotle also described a pinhole camera.
Historians believe the very first camera obscura ever built was created by an Arab scientist in Cairo by the name of Ibn al-Haitham who lived between 965 – 1039. His research allowed him to observe that light travels in a straight line and that the speed of light was far beyond his ability to measure. the principles described by al-Haitham were instrumental in helping later generations grapple with the theory of light.
By the time of Europe's renaissance cameras obscura were being created in boxes about the size of a television and the image displayed on a panel above using diffraction and mirrors. Artists of the era would carefully trace the scene they saw and then transfer the sketch to canvas, a technique that enabled the commercialization of art and sped up the process of painting, something that was particularly important in portraiture.
Historically, the art and science of photography dates to 1825 when Joseph Niépce, an inventor in France took the very first known photograph of the view outside his bedroom window. His image wasn't clear and sharp, and is barely recognizable other than for the shapes of buildings and a tree.
Niépce used a camera obscura and a polished metal plate that had been treated with bitumen which hardens when exposed to light. The bitumen was dissolved using lavender oil and then coated onto the metal plate before being placed inside the dark camera obscura. Unfortunately bitumen takes a considerable amount of time to dry and Niépce's first image took 8 hours to develop, with more complex images taking considerably longer.
Old Camera
Shortly after Niépce partnered with Louis Daguerre who had discovered that silver and chalk also darkened on exposure to light, but was a cleaner method producing better quality images. By 1839 Daguerre patented a system of fixing an image onto a metal plate using iodine vapor on the plate before taking the photo, and then using mercury fumes afterwards to fix the image.
During the 1830s a number of inventors came up with different methods of exposing images onto plates yet it wasn't until 1840 and the invention of the calotype process that things really started to get interesting. Fox Talbot, improved the silver plating method using paper and silver oxide allowing him to create the first negatives that could be used multiple times to create positives, images that are oriented correctly to the viewers perspective.
Cameras began to be produced in reasonable volume using Talbot's techniques that whilst improved were substantially similar. Demand from the public was enormous and almost every major town soon found itself with at least one photographic studio for family portraits. Most were simple affairs, a white wall and some basic props, but amongst the emerging middle classes there was also demand for themed photographs with drawing room or palatial backgrounds.
Since all photographs taken in these times were black and white or grayscale, photographers and painters would use colored ink to color in parts of the photo and create the illusion of a colored portrait. Skin tones rarely matched the person being photographed yet the popularity of this technique wasn't eclipsed until the development on color photography in the early 20 th century.
Kodak Logo
The greatest development in photography came about when George Eastman created a dry gel that could be applied to paper or film and more importantly, didn't require the photographer to carry bulky plates and chemicals, in fact the greatest advantage was that a photograph could be developed later in specially built laboratories. Eastman named his first camera the Kodak in 1888, but in 1901 revolutionized the industry with the development of the Kodak Brownie, the world's first mass market camera.
Color photography wasn't available until the late 19 th century although the methods of capturing color involved a lot more effort and preparation than black and white and was generally restricted to inventors who advanced the technology but weren't able to commercialize their inventions. In the early 20 th century this had changed and several photographers including amateurs were using a method known as Autochrome to take color photographs.
The true breakthru in color photography happened in the mid 1930s when Kodak and Agfa both made available their new color films, Kodachrome and Agfacolor using multi-layered film and the subtractive process. These same brands remained popular until the advent of digital photography in the 1990s.
Digital photography has now replaced film as the medium of choice for most consumers and professional photographers, and the first digital cameras capable of reasonable resolution first hit the market in 1991 from Kodak but were priced at levels that only professionals with a definite need for digital could afford.
Nikon D40 Digital Camera
Consumer point and shoot digital cameras with megapixel CCDs didn't become available until 2003-2004, not too long ago at all, yet their introduction effectively spelled the end for film based cameras, the majority of manufacturers having now switched production to digital formats.
관련 Histories :
History of Radio
Radio is the science of wirelessly transmitting data to a remote point where a receiver detects the signal. In common lexicon we think of radio in the context of FM or AM stations that broadcast a radio announcer speaking and playing music, but in fact radio waves are also used for sending and receiving data such as wifi networks, satellite broadcasts and Bluetooth devices.
The history of radio begins in the mid 1800s with theoretical discussions that electricity and magnetism were related. The telegraph system was the first direct commercially viable technology to be developed from this discovery, although telegraph required fixed wire cables and could only be transmitted from point to point, and needed human operators to retransmit a signal over long distances.
The first true wireless experiments weren't carried out until after James Maxwell had developed his own theories and incorporated the experiments of Michael Faraday into the unified theory of electromagnetism in 1865. Over the next decade several amateurs and physicists such as William Henry Ward, Mahlon Loomis, and Thomas Edison patented methods of sending and receiving a wireless telegraph system but none of these people ever demonstrated a working system.
This all changed in 1884 when Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti invented a device which was subsequently refined and then named a coherer by Edouard Branly in 1886. The coherer became the enabling technology that allowed early radio signals to be received. The coherer is a glass tube filled with metal filings and connected to an electrical current which produced an audible click in a sounder whilst the signal was being received.
By 1887 Heinrich Hertz had refined a system that allowed him to experiment with sending wireless signals to a wireless receiver and is credited with being the first person to intentionally transmit and also receive a wireless signal. Strangely Hertz had no interest in the technology and was simply experimenting with practical electromagnetic waves to advance his theories, but his research paved the way for other, and more commercially attuned inventors. In 1933 Hertz was honored when the unit of measure of radio and electrical frequencies was named in his honor as part of the new International Metric System.
A Serbian-Croatian immigrant to the US Nikola Tesla in 1892 demonstrated the first complete radio transmitter and receiver system, and in so doing was the very first person to successfully invent radio. Sadly, Tesla suffered a fire in his laboratory in 1895 just as he was about to demonstrate radio over a distance of 50 miles in New York. That experiment never happened but by 1898 Tesla demonstrated the first radio controlled boat and filed a series of patents for radio in the early 1900s.
Guglielmo Marconi, a young man from Bologna in Italy had been fascinated by the idea of wirelessly transmitting a telegraph signal and in 1894 succeeded in inventing a spark transmitter with an antenna that he used to broadcast a signal across his parents garden and then across a distance of a mile in the countryside. The Italian Postal Service which controlled telegraph services weren't interested in Marconi's experiment so in 1896 he made his way to England and successfully demonstrated his technology to the English Post Office who immediately secured his services.
Guglielmo Marconi
The following year Marconi established the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company and was selling his patented invention to shipping companies. So successful was Marconi's invention that Queen Victoria herself had one installed on a ship that her son the Prince of Wales was using whilst he recovered from illness. In 1898 Marconi also established the American Marconi Co recognizing that the US was quickly becoming one of the world's most important merchant navy operators.
Whilst Marconi's inventions were outstanding his real genius lay in commercializing his technology, an act that started with demonstrating a successful broadcast across the Atlantic in 1901, an event which progressed the development of radio broadcasting far more than any other single act. Marconi was related to British nobility who were powerful investors in his companies and in the emerging markets in the US.
So powerful were his backers that Marconi managed to have a patent for the invention of radio registered even though Tesla had a pre-existing patent. A legal dispute between the two started in 1915 and wasn't finally settled until 1943 when the US Supreme Court finally upheld Tesla's patent number 609,154 and confirming his role as the inventor of radio.
Another American Reginald Fessenden had heard of Marconi's success but was convinced the enabling technology could be redesigned and be both more efficient, but also allow audio broadcasts, and in 1900 demonstrated his new technology which would afterwards be used by the weather department for sending time and weather information to ships at see. In 1906 or 1909, nobody knows for sure since Fessenden only wrote his notes 25 years later, the very first audio transmission was carried out by Fessenden playing a violin and reading a few passages from the Bible.
Old Fashion Radio
Fessendon invented the Barretter detector which allowed him to also develop amplitude modulation (AM), a radio transmitting technique that allowed multiple transmitters to operate at different frequencies and effectively share the airwaves. So revolutionary was the development of radio by Fessenden and his peers that in 1910 a test transmission was held at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York where Enrico Caruso was performing. This broadcast was heard over 20 miles away by a merchant cargo ship sailing into New York from Europe and reported by the New York Times on January 14 th 1910.
The science of radio broadcasting continued at breakneck pace during these early years although consumer uptake remained elusive. A number of audio broadcasts had been transmitted including the ultimatum demand from President Wilson to Germany in 1918 and a highly publicized broadcast from the Naval radio station at Arlington to the Eiffel Tower in France. The end of WWI saw the US government relax control of radio patents and in 1920 KDKA, a Westinghouse owned station in Pittsburgh broadcast coverage of the Harding Cox election. Between commentary they also broadcast other short programs.
Commercial broadcasting took off after this with stations opening in every major city of the US and in major capitals around Europe. The 1920s truly were the birth years of modern radio as we know it. The development of stable mass produced vacuum valves made it possible for almost every home to own a radio. These weren't small, each radio was fitted into a cabinet that would take pride of place in the family living room and around which the entire family would gather every evening.
Edwin Armstrong, a radio pioneer with the Navy during WWI continued to develop his experiments, and being unhappy with the quality of sound from the AM system which was always known for being a bit flat and prone to white noise and static, he set about reinventing radio broadcasting which resulted in frequency modulation (FM) being made available in 1933. Stations broadcasting in FM were slow to develop given the expense of the new system until the invention of the transistor.
Scientists from Bell Labs invented the transistor in 1947, a technology that transformed modern electronics, although with the huge investments in tubes that already existed it was several years until a commercial transistor radio hit the market. Masaru Ibuka, a young radio repair technician in Japan managed to convince Bell Labs to license the use of the transistor to him for a new radio he wanted to develop. In the US Texas Instruments and Regency were also developing heir own transistor powered radios but it wasn't until 1957, and the release of Sony's TR-63 AM portable battery powered radio, which at the time was the world's smallest radio, that radio really became the dominant medium for new and entertainment.
During the 1960s television started to catch up as the preferred medium of entertainment for Americans although radio firmly held on in the car, and by the late 1990s most Americans only listened to the radio in the car or at work, a position radio is set to enjoy for years to come. Despite the advent of satellite and Internet radio, wirelessly broadcasting traffic reports, news, and music to radio receivers is still dominant.
관련 Histories :
History of Medicine
According to the Oxford English Dictionary medicine is the science and practice of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The American Heritage Dictionary goes further and says the art or science of restoring or preserving health or due physical condition, as by means of drugs, surgical operations or appliances, or manipulations. Few medical professionals would disagree with these definitions although they might suggest medicine more often involves treating ailments rather than preserving health.
In human society it is rare for people with illness or injuries to be abandoned to their fate, it happens, often during war or major pestilence, but on the whole humans are a caring species who look after and comfort the less capable within their family or tribe. Evidence that this trait was valued even in hunter gatherer societies is strong, archaeological digs have unearthed carefully arranged burial sites containing human remains that had been injured or passed away from illness.
Lascaux cave paintings of herbal plants suggest that ancient nomadic people knew of the recuperative effects of certain herbs, there have even been suggestions that morphine and digitalis may have been discovered in pre-historic times. Certainly we know that indigenous peoples, even those who have been remote from the rest of the human race for hundreds or thousands of years have all practiced a rudimentary form of medicine mixed with faith.
Surgery, even brain surgery, was not unknown. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that stone age people would sometimes drill holes into the skulls of people they believed to be under the influence of evil spirits. Called trepanning, the technique involved cutting and folding back the scalp then using a sharpened stone to drill a hole into the skull which in some instances was as big as two inches in diameter. We have no idea how the wound was treated so that it would heal but we do know that the patients often survived the procedure and the bone would grow back.
Recent discoveries in present day Pakistan at Mehrgarh prove that the earliest rudimentary medicine developed around 9000 years ago, with people in the area been practicing dentistry and surgery since 7000 BC. Sadly the Mehrgarh civilization disappeared around 2600BC and not much is yet known about their civilization since archeological digs are continuing. Coincidentally around the same time the Mehrgarh civilization disappeared (2600BC). ancient Egyptian and Chinese civilization were beginning, both of which then developed (supposedly independently) their own medical practices including dentistry and surgery such as amputations.
By the time of the first civilizations the practice of medicine had evolved into a craft that required many years of study, often as both priest and healer since curing the ailments of a patient would mostly be done along with prayer of the recitation of magic spells. Archeologists don't know much about earlier medical practices except what has been found written down by the ancient Egyptians who left a wealth of information in their tombs that dates from as early as 3000 BC. One remedy for the common cold found on papyrus suggests drinking milk from a mother who had given birth to a boy whilst the healer recited a spell; ” May you flow out, catarrh, son of catarrh, who breaks the bones, who destroys the skull, who hacks in the marrow, who causes the seven openings in the head to ache.”
Egyptian medicine was heavily reliant on the intervention of the Gods and no illness would ever be treated with consulting a priest-healer who had been purified and was known to be a reliable conduit between the living world and the world of the gods and spirits. Each god was known to have certain powers so it was important that the correct healer was approached who would guide the sick person thru the spells and prayers that were needed ensuring mistakes weren't made. Herbal remedies and other cures that in today's world seem quite primitive were in Egyptian times considered to be very appropriate and nobody would dream of not doing as they were instructed.
The ancient Egyptians also left a wealth of surgical tools and prosthetics for modern medical professionals to marvel over. Hooks, surgical knives, and casts were every bit as sophisticated as 19 th century medical instruments yet were in use as long ago as the 27 th century BC including the surgical suture and creams to assist healing after surgery. Egyptian society was also quite used to the idea of seeking potions from people we would recognize as pharmacists.
However advanced Egyptian medicine was, many of the treatments were very primitive and would have meant enduring a lot of pain, whilst some illnesses could not be treated and papyrus writing suggests death would be inevitable. Tetanus or a serious tooth abscess, both of which are trivial to treat today were causes of certain death in Egyptian times. Neighboring civilizations in the Near East also developed medicine taking all the best ideas from Egyptian medicine, with Greek and Babylonian priests at the forefront of medical thinking.
Babylonian medicine which developed from around 1500 BC reached its peak a few hundred years later and gave the world a book entitled the “Diagnostic Handbook” which describes the process a practitioner needed to follow to diagnose illness. Questions were to be asked and physical examinations undertaken before a prognosis could be arrived at, and definitely before any treatment commenced. Babylonian medicine isn't much known but the Diagnostic Handbook survived thru the ages first to Greek, and then Roman medicine.
Greek medicine, in some ways the successor to Egyptian medicine but with a slightly greater emphasis on the physical rather than the metaphysical and is the true ancestor of modern medicine. The Hippocratic Oath required of all medical professionals before being licensed is named after a Greek philosopher and man of medicine Hippocrates who developed his own rules of ethics for medical practitioners. Hippocrates has been described as the first chest surgeon and wrote copiously on the anatomy of the lungs, his findings are still considered relevant today.
Ancient Greek Medical Instruments
Greek medical practitioners were unique amongst the ancient world in that many weren't first and foremost priests, instead they were philosophers and learned men who were also knowledgeable about the various gods and their powers. It was during the Greek era that many of the medical terms in use today were first coined to describe types of diseases and illnesses, and the types of remedy required, and it was in this time that anatomy was most progressed thru dissection of human bodies.
Rome had discovered the link between health and hygiene and were the first civilization to fully develop a system of clean water aquaducts and waste sewage systems. Galen, a prominent Greek surgeon whose writings remained the mainstay of anatomy knowledge until renaissance times traveled to Rome and advanced Roman knowledge of surgical procedures and is believed to have discovered that boiling surgical instruments in hot water would reduce infection. Galen is considered the greatest surgeon of the ancient world having performed many surgeries that even 19 th century surgeons were not willing to attempt.
An earlier surgeon who is these days considered a rival to Galen for the title of greatest surgeon of the ancient world was unknown to western medical thought until the colonial age. Sushruta, from the ancient Indian city of Kashi who lived in the 7 th century BC, developed his surgical skills and powers of diagnosis and was the first person in the ancient world to fully describe many illnesses unknown to his Greek and Roman peers. Cosmetic surgery was pioneered by Sushruta, and in his seminal work Sushruta Samhita he described Angina, the human circulatory system, diabetes, hypertension, leprosy, obesity, and stones in the organs.
Post Roman medieval society all but forgot the teachings of the ancients and reverted to superstition and mysticism in many parts of society, medical science reverting to a standard little better than an advanced form of first aid. The only major exception was the craft of midwifery the survival of which is claimed to have been the perception that midwifery wasn't true medicine anyway being women's business. Many midwives retained ancient herbal remedial knowledge despite the advent of the dark ages yet throughout medieval times needed to be discreet about their undoubted medical knowledge or potentially face accusations of being witches, a fate that was never pleasant for the accused.
In contrast, the Muslim world had no qualms about adopting science knowledge from the highs of Greek and Roman civilization. The turn of the first millennium was a golden age within the Islamic world, even seeing scholars develop new science and coming close to inventing technologies such as flight, electricity, or optics that western scientists didn't develop until after the renaissance period.
In many ways Muslim period medical knowledge far outpaced anything known to the ancients, with most of the most influential Greek and Roman medical books being translated into Arabic by the late 900s. Arab surgeons and philosophers were also the first to adequately describe the complete circulation system and disprove many of the mystical ideas inherited from Greek writings.
By the end of the 13 th century Arab scholars had added mathematics to medicine allowing for accurate pharmacology in the creation and prescription of medications as well as giving surgeons and doctors a means of predicting the course of an illness using observation, empirical evidence and mathematics to calculate the most critical times of the illness, thus making dosage more specific to the patient.
Islamic Medical Instruments
The golden age of Islamic science and medicine also saw the invention of the syringe for medicating patients, the existence of the human immune system, the separation of pharmaceutical science from the practice of medicine, and further afield in India which had been heavily exposed to Islamic sciences, the invention of the art of inoculation. Whilst Europe was firmly in the grip of feudal ideas and the idea that a man was born to his position, the Arab world was experiencing the best medical care the world has known until the late industrial age ushered in modern medical science.
Andreas Vesalius
The decline of the Arab period left a vacuum in medical knowledge that wasn't filled until the advent of the renaissance at the end of the reformation years, yet even in these times scientists and medical practitioners still needed to be careful that their findings didn't contravene Catholic teaching too much since excommunication was still practiced, and even within the new protestant nations scientific research was still very much frowned upon by puritanical churches.
Some of the best known renaissance era medical researchers operated in complete secrecy, or as much as that was possible, an example being Leonardo Da Vinci who advanced our knowledge of human anatomy and the venal system by hiring gravediggers to bring him recently deceased human remains to experiment on. Whilst Da Vinci is not considered one of the great medical surgeons, he was in fact an artist with a wide variety of interests, he did at least make it possible for later generations of surgeons to study his anatomy drawings and reach their own conclusions.
No history of medicine would be complete without mentioning Andreas Vesalius, a Belgian doctor who more than anyone in European medical science established the truth of many myths that had been held true since Galen in the Roman era. Vesalius had been fascinated by Galen's findings and endeavored to create a complete map of the human body, but in so doing disproved many of Galen's most important hypotheses.
Vesalius published his findings entitled De humani corporis fabrica in 1543, a seven volume masterpiece illustrated with the assistance of professional artists and quickly becoming the authority on anatomy. With the changing political and religious landscape modern medicine since the advent of the industrial age has moved forward almost exponentially, and whilst 21 st century patients might still describe medical science into the 20 th century as quite barbaric, the truth is that the rapid advances being made now wouldn't have been possible without the slow progress of previous generations.
Some of the major advances since Vesalius' time include the general anaesthetic, antiseptics, the stethoscope, the hypodermic syringe, the thermometer, and the endoscope. Surgical advances of particular importance in the modern era saw the use of penicillin to fight infections, the advent of organ transplants such as heart, lung, kidney, liver, even complete transplants of hands and faces. None of these advances are yet perfected and the 21 st century promises to be a lively time in the history of medicine.
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History of Opera
Opera is a style of entertainment that involves theater combined with orchestral music and singers who perform using a distinctive classical method of projecting their voice. Performers in opera are not only trained in singing, but also in stage craft such as acting and choreography. The lead performers in most major productions are usually well known, and often as famous as their counterparts in other forms of theater such as Broadway Musicals.
As an art form opera was invented in the mid 1500s in the Italian city of Florence by a group of actors who were performing classical Greek theater and surmised that the original would have been performed with music playing in the background. Adopting the humanist approach to theater, these actors were nobel men educated in Latin and Greek and for whom the ancient dramas defined theater at its best.
The style of music played in the original Greek plays would have been quite simple, perhaps only a handful of instrumentalists playing the lyre, flutes and simple drums. By renaissance times instruments were quite different leading to richer more obvious music accompaniment, certainly by this time brass instruments like the trumpet had been invented and most string and wood instruments were significantly different.
Opera Spirit of Paris
Fuller sounding instrumentals would often drown out the voice of the performers leading to actors developing techniques for amplifying the voice, a step that quickly led to singing their parts instead of just reciting their lines. Singing is known to allow performers to project their voices further or more loudly and renaissance time were changing from religious austerity to more creative endeavors being the perfect environment for opera to develop.
By the end of the 16 th century this new style of theater was becoming popular and new productions specifically written to be sung with accompaniment began appearing. The De Medici family in Florence are believed to have paid a composer Jacopo Peri for the very first opera entitled 'Dafne' in 1598. It was performed in their private court for the nobility of Florence, and sadly much of the score for it has been lost yet it still has a place in the history of opera.
A few years later opera had made its mark and word of the new theater to music had spread from Florence to the rest of Italy, north to the Austrian Empire and the German Principalities, east the the Russian Empire, and as far west as England, France, and Spain. Outside of Italy the enthusiasm for opera was restricted to the nobility and landed gentry.
In Florence and the other great Italian cities such as Venice, Rome, or Milan dedicated opera houses started to be built and tickets to performances sold, with Venice taking the lead starting in 1637, but eventually building over 15 for the citizens of Venice alone and making Venice the spiritual and cultural home of opera even if Florence had been its birth city.
Claudio Monteverdi, one of the fathers of opera and whose works are still performed took the decision early in his operas to add short performances within his works that were designed to appeal to a wider audience, the emerging merchant classes who were less cultured and needed a little more entertainment than the heavy operas of the day.
Eventually these short pieces were dropped as the crowds started to appreciate a full length opera without interruption. The growing demand for opera of both a serious nature (opera seria) or the more entertaining comedic nature (opera buffa) created different schools of thought on the nature of opera, some composers preferring complex subtexts and interwoven plots, others preferring a minimalist approach.
Metropolitan Opera - 1937
As opera productions generally told the story of love, many of the characters appearing on stage were of course meant to be women, but renaissance society frowned on female actors, leading to all actors being men, a situation that encouraged castrati (castrated men) from all over Europe and the Arab world to make their way into theater, the best of them being able to hold a superb falsetto indistinguishable from that of a woman.
The introduction of women into opera as performers tho wasn't always seen as a disgrace to be remedied with castratis, indeed the famed English composer Henry Purcell wrote an English language opera for the dancing professor of a girls boarding school, which received critical review in the late 1600s and featured a cast of young ladies drawn from the gentry of England.
The language of the original operas were mostly written in the Italian of the great cities such as Florence and Venice, happily this is very similar to the Italian of today. Opera however did prove popular in other languages and has been able to transcend the language barrier to become popular elsewhere, notably German and French, and in the 20 th century English operas and operatic style musicals became exceedingly popular.
The development of opera in the 18 th century, at least outside of Italy, was mostly of German origin under the patronage of the most powerful imperial family of Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria. Based in Vienna they had a natural interest in German language opera inspired by Germanic myths and folklore.
Composers such as Glück, Mozart, Schubert, Schumann, Strauss, Weber, and Wagner all drove German opera to the pinnacle of perfection and thus influenced every other composer since, from the Italian courts to the French grand opera. German singspiele, singing and acting, came to be dominant and transformed opera buffa from its slapstick roots into a style filled with humor and nuance.
Sydney Opera House
English opera by comparison developed in wholly different directions after having been banned during Cromwell's reign whose puritan government frowned on singing and dancing. After the return of the monarchy opera was acceptable again but opera buffa proved more popular, leading to a distinctly English style of opera humor whose greatest proponents included George Fredric Handel, Thomas Arne, John Gay, and perhaps best known of them all Gilbert and Sullivan.
European immigrants to the US brought their love of opera with them, and Americans with their passion for being entertained quickly adopted opera as their own. In New York the Metropolitan Opera company in the 20 th century took a leading role in the development of modern opera and providing a stage for contemporary opera to thrive.
관련 Histories :
History of Coca Cola
Millions of people each day all around the world enjoy soft drinks such as Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola has been widely successful both in America and the world. While the story of Coca Cola starts in Atlanta Georgia more than 100 years ago, its origins and original recipe as an elixir are quite different than they are today. However, with plenty of advertising and a great business model, Coca-Cola has spread across the globe and still continues to be one of the most well known brands ever to be developed. Here is the history of Coca Cola.
The Beginning
Coca-Cola was first created in 1885 at Columbus, Georgia in a three legged kettle by Dr. John Pemberton. It was originally a type of cocaine which was popular in Europe at the time. The original drink was non alcoholic, carbonated and included cocaine and caffeine from the Kola nut. It was originally sold in Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia on May 8, 1886. Originally, an elixir, it was believed to actually cure many diseases which included morphine addiction, impotence, headache, dyspepsia an others.
The name Coca-Cola was the idea of Frank Robinson, the book keeper of Dr. Pemberton. In fact, the famous script Coca-Cola logo was again created by Frank Robinson, whom since was a book keeper had excellent penmanship. In its first year, Coca-Cola was not exactly a success. In fact, only about 9 servings per day were sold in the pharmacy in its first year, Coke ( a nickname for Coca-Cola) didn't even cover the $70 of expenses that it took to create the product. However, in the coming years, business would boom.
In 1887, another pharmacist Asa Candler bought the formula from John Pemberton. This cost was $2,300, and within ten years, the soda became one of the most popular fountain drinks. To realize this goal, Asa Candler aggressively marketed the product and with Pemberton and Candler both running the Coca-Cola Company, syrup sales of the drink increased over 4,000 percent from 1890 to 1900.
It should be noted that the first few years, three versions of the soft drink were sold by three different companies. However, after some legal wrangling, in-fighting, buy outs and forgery, a second Coca-Cola company was created in 1892, this is the Coca-Cola Company that still stands today.
The Success of Coca-Cola
Two major factors that have made Coca-Cola the huge, successful company it is today is both advertising and a good business plan. In the late 1800's and the first part of the 20 th century, Coca-Cola was mainly sold at the soda fountain. Places like pharmacies and ice cream shop would also sell soda. They would buy syrup and add carbonated water. The business plan was simple, Coca-Cola would create the syrup and then distribute it to companies- independent bottling companies that then either sold the syrup to bottled Coke across the country.
As soda fountains found in drug stores and ice cream parlors fell out of fashion to fast food restaurants and on the road convenience stores, bottling became a larger part of their business model. In fact, while the first bottled Coca-Cola was available in 1894, fountain sodas continued to be successful until the 1960's. The first canned Coca-Cola was first sold in 1955.
Besides being able to spread Coca-Cola throughout the country quickly, conveniently and cost effective using bottling companies, another asset of the drink was its continually aggressive advertising campaigns. During the first half of the 20 th century, Coca-Cola was found easily in many newspapers on wall murals and on the many billboards that dotted the landscape near roads. In addition, Coca-Cola also utilized radio as well. Many consider Coca-Cola as having a huge influence on Americana and even promoting the now iconic image of Santa Clause as being an old man in a red suit with a white beard.
Today, Coca-Cola is still one of the largest advertisers in the world. The Coca-Cola Company not only advertises in print, radio, television, film and on the web, but also advertisers utilizing sporting events and other promotional events. During the 1970's one of the radio spots produced even produced a hit song ” I like to teach the world to sing”.
The History of the Coca-Cola Bottle
Besides the drink itself becoming popular, the bottle has also become an iconic image of the brand. The bottle that is infamous is known as the contour design and was actually created in 1915, by glass bottle designer Earl R. Dean of the Root Glass Company. The Coca-Cola Company decided to have a competition on who can create the best bottle design. They wanted a design that could be easily recognizable, even in the dark or if broken. Since the two main ingredients were the kola nut and cocoa leaf, the Root Glass Company wanted to create a design based on these two plants, however, there was no images found in the nearby library, so instead Earl R. Dean was inspired by another image he found- one based on the cocoa pod.
Other Coca-Cola Products
While Coca-Cola has had tremendous success and now can be found in more than 200 countries, there have been several products that Coca-Cola has released, some successful and others miserable failures. Here are a couple of them.
Diet Coke
Diet Coke was introduced in 1982. While the product uses the Coca-Cola trademark, it should be noted that it is a totally new reformulation of the Coke product. Geared towards diet conscious drinkers, Diet Coke became successful and took over the once popular diet cola brand TAB- also created by Coke. Over the years, Diet Coke has been sweetened with artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, saccharine, NutraSweet and splenda. Diet coke offers those looking to cut their caloric intake and those that want a cola drink, but need to reduce their sugar intake (diabetics). Today, Diet coke has about 1.5 calories compared to about 142 calories in a typical 330 ml bottle of Coca-Cola.
New Coke
While Diet Coke was a success from the beginning, New Coke turned out to be a historic flop. New Coke was introduced in 1985 as a reformulation of the old product. While the taste was sweeter and more like Pepsi- Coca-Cola's main competitor, market research has showed that the taste of New Coke was proffered over Coke and Pepsi. However, when New Coke was rolled out, it turned into a public relations nightmare with many loyal Coke drinkers upset that their beloved cola drink was reformulated. While sales were strong- possibly due to curiosity, after three months, the Coca-Cola Company reverted back to the old formula. New Coke continued to be sold and the old formula was renamed Coca-Cola Classic.
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