How the Tower of Pisa Came About

Designed in 1174 by Italian sculptor Bonanno Pisano, the Leaning Tower of Pisa began to slowly sink right after laborers started building it 800 years ago. When construction reached the third floor, the workers realized the Tower had started to lean slightly. A poor choice of location to build the Tower led to problems with the stability of the building.

Due to the marshy unstable soil of the estuary on which it sits, the Tower sank so badly that leaders halted construction on it for 90 years. Ultimately completed by Giovanni di Simone and Tommano Simone, the pair placed a belfry at the top of the tower in the 14^th century. The Tower then began its characteristic tilt that captured the public’s imagination.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa illustrates the dynamics of a differential element that made it lean over the years. The excess weight on the different areas of soil underwent differential settlement that caused a gradual shift that continues to this day.

An example of a bell tower, the Romanesque design has a cylindrical shape characterized by six open galleries. Long considered a visual masterpiece, the design is stunning. Located in galleries separated by a cornice, a series of arches adorn the capitals of the columns. Blind geometrically designed arcades line the base of the Tower. The belfry contains the same arcades with the housing of the bells inside.

Loved By Many

Due to the grandeur of the design, the Leaning Tower of Pisa became beloved over the years and a testament to great Italian architecture. In the 800 years since the Tower was finished, many architects, engineers and other great minds tried to halt the inclination. Many excavations and buildings around the tower worsened said inclination.

An effort in 1934 saw engineers install a device to measure two directional tilts of the tower. They then drilled holes into the masonry foundation and injected 80 tons of grout to further stabilize it. The effort failed. The tilt sharply increased by an amount of one-half inch of movement at the top of the tower. All subsequent efforts failed to halt the Tower’s lean until efforts in 1994 started to correct the lean.

Closed to the Public

In 1990 government officials closed the Tower to the public due to safety issues caused by its incline. The move caused considerable tourist revenue loss. As the Tower lean worsened, officials began to look for a permanent solution.

Laying counterweights on the north side of the tower aided in its stabilization. A crew put in place cast ingots to aid the reverse of the lean further. The result of the design allowed the Tower to lean back toward the north in the desired direction. Soil extraction methods resulted in a further decrease in the Tower’s lean. As of 1999, efforts continue to correct the incline of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

The effort is complicated by the fact that engineers can’t remove the lean completely, or tourists will quit coming. There are ideas in the future to remove the water table in the ground under the structure.

A Costly Independence

Quite ironically, the United States was in debt even before it became a country. By gaining its independence through war, America had already begun financing military actions – thus incurring debt that was effective as soon as the nation was born. Early U.S. governments therefore endeavored to reduce or even eradicate the debt, which proved impossible; that is, debt is a natural part of running a business or a country and is necessary to fund investments.

The Louisiana Purchase is a perfect example. Such allowed the U.S. to achieve unity as a country and acquire vast expanses of precious land that now contribute to the grandeur of the country. And yet it required tremendous amounts of capital that was attainable only through borrowing.

Additionally, a country inevitably ends up engaging in very costly and non revenue-generating activities. The U.S. Civil War was one of those unforeseen events that ended up draining the government’s coffers while feeding the mounting national debt. The symbolic mark of $1 billion was reached due in large part to said internal conflict.

Twentieth Century – Wealth and Wars

Following the Industrial Revolution, the U.S. had become an economically very powerful country and entered the 20^th century in a very comfortable position financially and with a reasonable level of indebtedness. But the U.S.’s involvement in World War I required enormous amounts to be invested in the Army, which caused the debt to skyrocket between 1914 and 1918.

Due to its strong economy, the United States has been able to reduce its national debt in between wars. That said, it always dramatically increased again every time a new conflict broke out. World War II and the Vietnam War in particular hit the national debt pretty hard.

In more recent times, the U.S.’s debt level has been harder to control. During the 1980s the infamous trillion mark was reached and largely surpassed. Although the 1990s saw a much more stable evolution of the national debt, growth started again in the early 2000s. It is estimated that it will continue at an unfortunately steady pace in the coming years, but its reduction remains a major focus for the current administration.

Funding the National Debt

The United States has been funding its national debt through the issuance of a series of debt instruments. Those are diverse but essentially consist of bonds issued by the government with various maturity dates and interest rates. They are issued to American and foreign populations and corporations. The U.K., Japan and China, for example, hold significant amounts of U.S. bonds. The American government is used to selling bonds and bills to the public, sometimes appealing to its residents’ patriotism in times of war and offering low-yield but yet very safe investment options.

History of Executive Orders

The first Executive Order that George Washington issued instructed the heads of departments to clarify important matters in said departments. Between 1789 and 1907, presidents issued close to 2400 Executive Orders. The Department of State started filing the orders chronologically in 1907 with numbers issued to them. The State Department filed 13,000 Executive Orders between 1908 and 1991. The Executive Orders are filed with the Department of State when the president finishes issuing them.

Since their inception, their use has varied in such cases as regulating the civil service, determining holidays for federal workers, establishing security programs and classifying government documents as top secret or secret. Their use also allows the allotment of public lands for Indian reservations and environmental protection. Use of Executive Orders helps organize federal disaster assistance efforts as well.

Limits to Executive Orders

A federal court can enforce an executive order if Congress enacted it so long as it does not go against federal law. New legislation can cancel or nullify an Executive Order the president issued if the Supreme Court or lower federal courts deem such unconstitutional. President Harry S. Truman felt that a nation-wide strike of steel workers in 1952 would jeopardize national defense, so he issued an Executive Order directing the Secretary of Commerce to seize and operate most steel mills in the country. Congress balked at the measure it did not give the President given statutory authority to conduct the seizure of the mills. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the union that the President violated the due process clause of the Constitution by seizing the property.

Other presidents tangled with Congress over Executive Orders as well. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used Executive Orders during his term to create agencies without getting Congressional approval. In 1944 Congress passed a law to prohibit this practice. After President Richard M. Nixon tried to dissolve several agencies by Executive Order, Congress passed a law in 1968 that stopped presidents from doing this without Congressional authority.

Executive Orders can also allow a president more clout in decisions during periods of war. Franklin Roosevelt used this expanded power to take possession of defense plants to guarantee production of aircraft in World War II. He later used a series of Executive Orders to establish a curfew for Japanese Americans to limit their mobility on the West Coast. He used an Executive Order in 1944 to intern them in camps.

Recent Executive Orders

On Jan. 11, 2010, President Barack Obama signed an Executive Order establishing the Council of Governors to strengthen the partnership between federal, state and local governments. The order enabled better protection of the U.S. against all types of danger. The appointed Council reviews such matters involving the National Guard, homeland defense, civil support, synchronization and integration of state and federal military activities in the U.S. “and other matters of mutual interest pertaining to National Guard, homeland defense, and civil support activities”.

References

http://www.answers.com/topic/executive-order-1

Dean Kamen’s Early Innovations

Dean Kamen, the inventor of the technology that the Segway utilizes, holds more than 440 U.S. and foreign patents. He developed a medical device, the first wearable infusion pump for chemotherapy, neonatology and endocrinology, as an undergraduate in college.  In 1976 Kamen became an entrepreneur by founding his first company: AutoSyringe, Inc. Kamen sold the company in 1982 and founded DEKA Research & Development Corporation to conduct research and development on his innovative products for major corporate clients.

Breakthrough Inventions-The IBOT and the Segway HT

The Segway stemmed from Kamen’s earlier balancing technology from the IBOT Mobility system he developed in 1990. The IBOT idea developed after Kamen became upset while watching a man try to get his wheelchair over the curb of a sidewalk. The solution he developed at DEKA, a six-wheeled motorized wheelchair, enabled the handicapped to climb stairs. It additionally lifted them to eye level.

In the mid 1990s, DEKA started developing the Segway Personal Transporter. Development on the HT took approximately $100 million. Commercial backers for it included Credit Suisse First Boston and Silicon Valley venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. According to Vanity Fair, Kleiner Perkins’ partner John Doerr believed the Segway Company could potentially reach $1 billion in sales.

DEKA used the balancing technology used on the IBOT to create the device. The HT used microprocessors and solid-state gyroscopes to balance itself. The driver used handlebars while driving upright on the platform. Conventional friction brakes wouldn’t work on the device because it needed its wheels to balance its weight. When the HT stopped moving, the braking process energy transferred back into the batteries.

The Segway design didn’t take up much space. It provided extreme maneuverability and would work on pedestrian sidewalks and pathways. In addition, the device delivered zero emissions. Established in New Hampshire in 2000, Segway LLC developed and manufactured the HT. A separate venture from DEKA, it employed 130 workers.

Introducing the Segway to Consumers

Introduced to the public in December 2001, the first official Segway Human Transporter (HT) received a lot of attention as celebrities used it for the first time on national TV. The hit sitcom Frasier even featured it on an episode.

Legislation was passed on Feb. 15, 2002, that allowed Segways to operate on sidewalks. Within a year 30 other states passed laws that allowed the Segway HT to operate on sidewalks. On Nov. 18, 2002, the Segway HT was sold to the public for the first time on Amazon.com. The Segways sold for $3000.

The Segway didn’t sell as well to the public as backers hoped it would (only 50,000 sold by March 2009). Safety issues due to a software problem caused recalls in 2006, also. The Segway is still used in some theme parks by visitors and employees.

Special police forces trained to protect the public used The Segway during the 2008 Summer Olympics. As of May 2007 Segway had more than 250 retail points in 60 countries, and as of October 2008 over 1000 police and security agencies use Segway HTs in their patrolling operations.

Construction

White Star Line, a major British shipping company, decided at the beginning of the 20^th century that its engineers would build the biggest and most prestigious passenger ship in the world: the RMS Titanic. Thomas Andrews was in charge of the design, and construction began at the Harland and Wolf naval construction site in 1909.

The Titanic came toward the end of the steam-engine era and was an enormous ship whose size was intended to intimidate the competition. With over 880 feet of length (several times the size of a Boeing 747) and a tonnage of over 46,000 tons, the RMS Titanic was at the time the biggest ship ever built, carrying 3547 people in total.

The ship was meant to dazzle both with its sheer size and its luxury aboard. Engineers took pride in having built a fast and strong ship that would take high-end passengers across the Atlantic in style.

Life Aboard the Titanic

White Star Line had made a point of designing the most luxurious and sometimes over-the-top infrastructures possible to accommodate the very wealthy first-class passengers. Amenities were numerous and included a high-end restaurant, a swimming pool and a sports center. Second-class passengers had much more common traveling conditions, while third-class passengers were simply on board to get to the other side.

Inaugural Voyage and Sinking

The Titanic’s tragic ending occurred during its first and only voyage, which started April 10, 1912, from Southampton and meant to end in New York City. The ship carried a total of 2228 people of all walks of life, nationalities and social backgrounds. Edward John Smith, an experienced British captain, was in charge of the ship for what he intended to be his final trip before retirement.

The inaugural voyage of the Titanic was a major event that drew a host of English and American celebrities and businessmen, among which were Dorothy Gibson, John Astor, Benjamin Guggenheim, Isidor Straus (Macy’s co-founder) and many others.

The Titanic‘s sinking occurred in the night of April 14, 1912, four days into the journey, when the ship collided with an iceberg and its floating compartments gradually filled with water until they couldn’t support it anymore. It took almost three hours for the Titanic to become completely submerged, but poor decisions and lack of preparation led to the deaths of 1522 people out of the 2228 present on the boat.

The biggest cause of outrage in the tragedy is undoubtedly the lack of lifeboats, coupled with the priority given to first-class passengers during the evacuation. Amazingly, White Star Line had not deemed it necessary to equip the ship with more than 16 lifeboats, which amounted to a capacity of only 1178 people. Those lifeboats were also grossly underused and helped rescue only about 700 people, while the rest perished in the freezing waters.

Born Anthony Blair on May 6, 1953, in Edinburgh, Scotland, Blair later attended Oxford University. After graduation he began a career as a barrister. Elected Labour Member of Parliament for Sedgefield in 1983, he soon became a part of a crowd of Labour Party Modernizers.

Blair, along with politicians Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson, wanted to change the Labour Party image by focusing on making it more acceptable to the electorate. The trio wanted to downplay its relationship with trade unions, unilateral nuclear disarmament, public ownership and high taxation.

Tony Blair assumed the position as Labour Leader after then-leader John Smith’s death. Once elected to the position, he proved an imposing figure and capable leader of the Labour Party. He led the party to a landslide victory in the 1997 general election.

At age 43 Blair became the youngest premier in Parliament since 1812. He tried to project an invigorated and modern image of Britain. He implemented radical policies such as constitutional reforms that allowed limited forms of self-government to Wales and Scotland.

Realizing that the Labour Party needed to change its image and message to gain votes, Blair moved the focus away from the traditional emphasis on national industry and union privileges and supported policies to lower crime and taxes, improve trade, and grant more authority to regional and state government. He felt that government had an obligation to create an environment wherein families came first. As such, he placed an emphasis on family and community values and implemented policies where they could thrive.

Reforming public services proved more difficult to implement, and Blair noted that the country’s dependence on private enterprise initiatives didn’t deliver the results he anticipated. Health care, education and transport still seemed problematic in this regard.

Although Blair was re-elected in 2001, his second term was more difficult. His image became tarnished somewhat by his strong support of United States foreign policy. During the war with Iraq (2003) he convinced Britain to participate, claiming that Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction.

When Blair ran for a third consecutive term, he won re-election in 2005. One of the highlights of this period was the G8 summit at Gleneagles. He chaired the summit that focused on two issues of extreme import to him: climate change and conditions in Africa. After his long career as Prime Minister, Tony Blair resigned from office in 2007.

Characteristics of the Watermelon

The watermelon grows on vines on the ground. A member of the Cucurbitaceae family, the watermelon shares a relationship with cantaloupe, squash and pumpkin. Some varieties of watermelon come with a variety of rind and flesh colors. The inside flesh of the popular varieties are red or yellow. Round, oblong or spherical in shape, the watermelon grows in many different shapes. The thick rind of the plant sports spotted, striped and solid green colors.

Origin of the Watermelon

Thought to be the ancestor of the original watermelon, the white-skinned citron first grew in the Kalahari Desert of Africa. Egyptians recorded the earliest harvest of them 5000 years ago. Important to the culture of the Egyptians, watermelons were depicted in hieroglyphics that adorned the ancient walls of their structures. They buried the fruit in the tombs of their kings because they believed it nourished them in the afterlife.

Watermelons later spread by merchant ships to other countries as they traveled to conduct their business. The plants flourished along the Mediterranean Sea, and by the 10th century they made their way to China. Later in the 13th century the Moors helped spread the watermelon throughout Europe.

The watermelon may have made its way to the United States during the African slavery trade via slaves carrying the seeds on the ships. The word watermelon made its first debut in the English Dictionary in 1615. There are five states that currently lead watermelon production in the U.S: Florida, Texas, California, Georgia and Arizona. The United States ranks as number four in worldwide production of watermelon. China holds the number one spot.

Watermelon Cultivation

Watermelons come in 1200 different varieties. Recent cultivations led to development of several desirable characteristics of the fruit, including seedless varieties and ones with thin rinds. Importation and exportation of the watermelon allows for enjoyment of it all year.

Fun Facts about Watermelon

• 96 countries grow watermelons globally.
• Considered a polite gesture, the Chinese and Japanese often give watermelons to the host when they visit.
• Israelis and Egyptians enjoy salads made with sweet watermelon and salty feta cheese.
• Watermelon has a 92% water composition.
• The first cookbook published in the United States included a recipe for watermelon rind pickles.
• The largest watermelon ever grown weighed in at 268.8 pounds.
• Watermelon contains plenty of vitamins A, B6 and C.
• You can eat every part of a watermelon, including the seeds and rinds.

In West Philadelphia Born And Raised

Born in 1968, Will Smith grows up in Philadelphia in a middle-class neighborhood where he attended high school. Very early on he decided on a career in music and started performing as the rapper Fresh Prince (with his friend Jazzy Jeff) with a lot of success. By 1988 the duo was at the top of the charts with its album He’s the DJ I’m the Rapper, which earned triple platinum status along with a Grammy award.

The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air Years

In 1989 a TV show creator approached Will Smith to offer him the lead in an NBC sitcom called The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air. The show – about a fun-loving Philadelphia teenager whose mother sends him to live with relatives in a luxury house in Los Angeles – was a huge international hit that catapulted him to stardom. It ran for six seasons and launched Will Smith’s acting career. Toward the end of the series, Smith decided to end his musical partnership with Jazzy Jeff in order to focus on acting.

Bad Boys – Birth of an Action Hero

In the mid-1990s Smith became a household name and made his move to the big screen with a few movies that had moderate to good success at the box office. He got his first major starring role in the blockbuster Bad Boys, a Don Simpson/Jerry Bruckheimer production in which he teams up with comedian-actor Martin Lawrence. The movie generated good revenue in the U.S. and foreign markets despite mixed reviews and established Smith as a major film star.

In the years that followed Smith appeared in a number of movies, starring in major productions and making several millions for each of them. With Bad Boys and Men in Black, both of which spawned high-grossing sequels, Smith was recognized as a talented actor upon whom someone could build a successful franchise.

Hancock- The Movie Star Power

Will Smith went through the early part of the new millennium as one of the biggest and most successful movie stars. His role as Muhammad Ali in 2001 showed his talent and versatility as an actor. All but one of the movies he made after 2002 raked in over $100 million in the U.S. market. His name is usually at the top of the A-list whenever a major project reaches the pre-production phase. His casting as a washed-up superhero in Hancock (2008) is great example of the movie star he has become.

Personal Life

Smith has three children (all of whom have also appeared in films or TV shows) from two different marriages and is now living with his second wife, Jada Pinkett Smith, and their two children.

Where Did Kokopelli Originate?

Kokopelli captures the imagination and awe of people who enjoy art and culture. Ancient cultures carved and painted the flute player into rock walls and boulders long ago.

The history of Kokopelli goes back 3000 years to the first carved petroglyphs. The Anasazi established him as a deity. The Anasazi were ancient Pueblo people centered in the present day Four Corners region in the Southwestern United States (Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Utah). His true origins are unknown.

Kokopelli, whom the Hopi, Taos and Acoma indigenous people still revere, takes his place as a popular figure in history. The Hopi consider him a symbol of fertility. He often appears hunchbacked and in dancing poses. He plays a flute in Native American depictions. Legends portray him as a prankster, healer and story teller. As a sacred figure to many Southwestern Native Americans, he shares a connection with music, dance and mischief. He often displays Casanova-like tendencies.

Legend of Kokopelli

Many fascinating myths surround the story of Kokopelli. Storytellers say that long ago he went from village to village, turning winter to spring. The melody from his flute caused this transition. The flute was heard in the breeze and brought warmth. He could also melt the snow and bring rain to aid the harvest. Some said he had a hunchback because of all the seeds and songs he carried with him.

Another legend states human conception comes from Kokopelli. According to legend, if he sings and dances in the night, the next morning all the young ladies in the village will conceive a child. Pueblo myths depict him as a seducer who carried seeds, babies and blankets to maidens in order to gain favor with the ones he desired.

Kokopelli’s Likeness in Art

Ten centuries ago the Hohokam (Arizona Pueblo) painted Kokopelli’s image on ceramics. This became the prototype for his likeness in modern representations of him.  Modern artists often depict Kokopelli wearing a kilt and a sash. His flute is actually a nose flute and resembles a clarinet.

Winner in a Design Competition

Gustave Eiffel, a French engineer and self-made millionaire, won a design competition in 1887 for the radical design of the Eiffel Tower. His firm was well known for constructing fine bridges all over the world. He beat 700 proposals by a unanimous vote. Not meant to be a permanent structure, one of the conditions of the contest stipulated that the structure could be dismantled easily. The Eiffel tower took 300 steel workers two years (1887-1889) to construct.

The Eiffel Tower was then used as a memorial and centennial celebration of the French Revolution. The commission’s huge iron latticework design impressed visitors of the exhibition in 1889. The Prince of Wales and future King Edward VII of England opened the tower.

Love it or Hate it

The Eiffel Tower always elicited strong reactions. Prominent people in the arts like Henri Rousseau, Maurice Utrillo, Marc Chagall and Sonia Delaunay admired the structure, but others like Guy Maupassant, Emile Zola, Charles Garnier and Alexander Dumas the Younger despised it. The wording in a petition they introduced to protest its construction deemed it a monstrosity.  The critics said that, “The Eiffel Tower, which even commercial America would not have, is without a doubt the dishonor of Paris.”

Gustave Eiffel happily stoked the fire, saying, “They begin by declaring that my tower is not French. It is big enough and clumsy enough for the English or Americans, but it is not our style, they say. We are more occupied by little artistic bibelots. . . . Why should we not show the world what we can do in the way of great engineering projects?”

Installation of Radio Inside the Tower

When Eiffel heard of the first radio signals broadcast to the Pantheon by Eugène Ducretet in 1898, he approached French military leaders and influenced them to make the Eiffel Tower into a long-distance radio antenna. By 1903 a radio connection was established with the military bases around Paris. In 1906 a permanent radio station was installed inside the tower.

The temporary Eiffel Tower was supposed to be torn down in 1909 when its permit expired. The tower had become too important because of the importance of its antenna used for military purposes. During World War I the tower’s radiotelegraphic center intercepted enemy messages. One famous example of this led to the arrest and execution of the infamous spy Mata Hari.

After 1910 the Eiffel Tower became part of the International Time Service. French radio (since 1918) and French television (since 1957) also made use of the tower and its radio antenna. Gustave Eiffel lived long enough to listen to the first European public radio broadcast from an aerial on the tower in 1921. The French modified the top of the tower for more antennae over the years.