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History of Chinese Astrology

Chinese astrology is an ancient philosophy and form of fortune telling that is interpreted by knowing the exact day of a person’s birth, and using charts of the sun and the major planets allows practitioners to develop a horoscope and life chart for the person whose fortune is being determined. In common with western astrology, the Chinese variant is believed to be useful in predicting a person’s character and their potential for happiness and success in life.

Forms of ancient Chinese astrology have existed since the dawn of civilization along the valleys of the Yellow River in mainland China, although parts of the mythology may even predate the first human settlements and could be shamanic in origin. Archaeological evidence from between 3000 and 4000 Bc, about 5,500 years ago suggests that ancient Chinese rituals were already developed and that the Chinese Zodiac was already known.

Earliest myths in Chinese history suggest horoscopes were being prepared at the court of Emperor Huang Ti, who is considered the first true emperor of China and is believed to have lived in the 26th century BC, well over 4,500 years ago. The first written horoscope known to archaeologists which includes the 12 zodiac signs dates from sometime in the Shang dynasty (began 1760BC) and was written on a tortoise shell.

chinese-zodiac

Nobody is certain when Chinese astrology developed it principles and who first suggested using animals for the names of the years, but we do know that for most of the last 2,500 years Chinese astrologers have used a 12 year cycle, each named after an animal, and with the addition of a major planet for each cycle giving Chinese astrology a 60 year cycle before the names of the years start to repeat again.

Each year is named after an auspicious animal from Chinese mythology, the rat, buffalo, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and boar, each of which are considered to have both positive and negative qualities although the negative qualities are rarely considered character flaws, rather lacking certain prowess. The five planets known to ancient Chinese astronomers were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn and each was associated with a natural element, water, metal, fire, wood, and earth respectively.

Nobody is quite sure how the signs of the Chinese zodiac came to be known after animals although legends from China tell of several beautiful stories. Probably the oldest origin lies with the Jade King, an ancient Chinese god who predates Confucianism or Buddhism and who had been so busy creating the earth and all its magnificent rivers, mountains, oceans, and all of the animals and then became disillusioned with men who he considered disloyal and a terrible influence in his creation.

Deciding to set some rules for men to live by and curb their natural urges to destroy their surroundings he looked down from heaven for a person who would be respected by men and be able to enforce the Jade King’s rules. Not seeing anyone suitable since all men were only interested in their own welfare he invited all the animals to meet him and enter a race to decide the 12 animals who would be given the honor.

Chinese Zodiac ChartIn some legends the race was a fair distance over mountains, across deserts and a mighty river before finishing at a small village, but in other stories the race was a simple affair requiring only a short run followed by a river crossing. In any event the order of the animals winning the race is always the same, being won by the rat who hitched a rid on the back of the ox and scampered off it’s back as it reached the opposite shore. The ox came second closely followed by the tiger, and then the rabbit to everyone’s surprise.

The dragon was next, and should have won the race but was a kindly soul who kept stopping to help other contestants. The snake hid in the hoof of the horse and then startled it at the finish to claim the 6th position. The ram, monkey, and rooster all arrived together after working as a team, followed by the dog who had stopped to bathe in the river, and lastly the pig who needed a meal before attempting the river crossing.

Later legends tell that the Great Buddha called the animals to a meeting just before he attained the final nirvana to pass on his wisdom and some advise to the animals who serve men, but only 12 animals turned up and they were each granted a place in the Chinese zodiac as their reward. The Buddha is reputed to have lived in the 25th century BC whilst the Jade King was known before this time so we must assume that the buddhists of the time adopted Chinese legend around the time that Buddhism was gaining popularity in China.

We know that at the time of Confucius, about 100 years before the birth of the Buddha that Chinese astrology was an important part of both court life and also of the ordinary citizen with Confucius himself quoted saying “Heaven sends down its good or evil symbols and wise men act accordingly”, and not long later the great Chinese astrologer Zou Yen who founded the School of Yin-Yang writing in the 2nd century BC that “When some new dynasty is going to arise, heaven exhibits auspicious signs for the people”.

Confucius

Confucius

Historical writings from the Tang dynasty which began around 600 AD attest to there being an encyclopedia of astrology in existence which defined every part of Chinese astrology and offered details of how to prepare a horoscope in accordance with the principles of Yin and Yang and Feng Shui. By this time Chinese astrology as we know it today was more or less completely known and understood, and had spread to other parts of Asia under Chinese influence including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

Chinese astrology remained largely unknown to the western world until the 17th century when trade with China started in earnest. The huge interest in Confucianism at the time exposed western astrologers to Chinese thought, though it wasn’t until the 20th century that Chinese astrology gained many adherents outside of Asia. The late 20th century, especially the 1990s witnessed a proliferation of books being published on Feng Shui and Chinese Astrology leading to many westerners adopting Chinese traditions in their own lives.

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History of the Christmas Tree

Throughout the world when the Christmas holiday season is upon us one of the most popular traditions involves decorating a tree with ribbon and small ornaments, a string of lights that flash, and of course the magic of stacking gifts for loved ones under the bottom branches. Usually the decorated Christmas tree takes pride of place in the corner of the room or beside the fireplace for several weeks, until it is finally removed on the day of Epiphany (6th January).

In ancient northern European cultures before the Greeks and Romans had built their empires, evergreen trees were considered magical and able to resist the darkness of winter when everything else died. The priests and villagers of the time would gather around the tallest evergreen every year at the winter solstice and pray to the gods for the return of the sun and the warm weather that let their crops grow and the animals multiply.

It seems strange to 21st century people to think that summer wouldn’t return but thousands of years ago people only knew that winter was a harsh and bleak time. They knew that the sun comes and then goes, and then returns again but their lives were so precarious, and populations so small that they were only able to stockpile enough food and firewood to last thru the winter and if the sun didn’t return they’d perish. In this context it is easy to understand the magic that evergreen trees obviously had.

Christmas Tree Detail

Ancient Egyptian society were known to appreciate the value of evergreen trees as well and would bring palm fronds into their homes and temples at the winter solstice which symbolized the importance of life over death. The ancient Egyptians strongly believed in an afterlife and the concept of resurrection, and palm fronds which remained green became a symbol of eternal life.

The pagan beliefs and customs of decorating the Christmas tree are even believed to be mentioned in Jeremiah 10:2-4 when God is quoted as saying “Do not learn the ways of the nations or be terrified by signs in the sky, though the nations are terrified by them. 3 For the customs of the peoples are worthless; they cut a tree out of the forest, and a craftsman shapes it with his chisel. 4 They adorn it with silver and gold; they fasten it with hammer and nails so it will not totter.”

Many Christians misinterpret these passages as indicating that the Christmas tree are an un-Christian pagan activity which should be discontinued. In fact most Christian scholars agree Jeremiah is instead referring to the pagan practice of cutting and turning timber into an idol which was then decorated with gold and silver and worshipped as a god. There is no historical evidence to suggest that the Christmas tree, or indeed any decorated tree, ever formed part of the pagan traditions of the Holy Land.

During the Roman era a festivity known as Saturnalia was one of the most important events in the Roman calendar, occurring at around the same time as Christmas is celebrated. The 25th of December was originally the end of Saturnalia but after Roman centurions conquered Babylon the 25th of December which was celebrated by Babylonians as the day of birth of their sun god Mithra found its way into Roman society as many Romans adopted Mithraism as their main religion. Yet it should be said the Romans were polytheistic and many mithraists would have continued to worship traditional Roman gods as well.

Christmas Trees in Snow

Mithra so legend tells was also born from an immaculate conception and predates Christian and Roman beliefs by two millennia having been the most powerful god of pre-Babylonian societies such as the ancient Persians and Vedic peoples of Northern India (known as Mitra in Vedic). Mithra’s birth was celebrated every year by the decorating of an evergreen tree in the homes of worshippers.

A fir tree was traditionally decorated by Roman citizens and gifts placed under the tree just as modern Christians do, although after the fall of the Roman Empire the practice of decorating a tree as had been done during Saturnalia fell into disuse in most parts of the Christian world.

The Catholic Church of the time attempted to eradicate all pagan traditions and was forced in 274AD to adopt most pagan holidays and give them new meaning to reduce the more unsavory aspects of the traditions. In part they were successful but in fact the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 550AD and the growth of Islamization around the Mediterranean from the early 8th century did more to curtail pagan beliefs.

The late medieval ages saw a revival of pagan traditions throughout Europe to varying degrees leading to many monks and priests inventing stories that reaffirmed the connection between decorating trees and Christ’s birth. Nobody knows exactly who created the story of the fir tree becoming the Christmas tree. Medieval fables told of all living creatures attending Christ’s birth and bring whatever gifts they could.

The trees too gave gifts, olives from the olive tree, dates from the palm tree, but the fir having traveled from Europe was tired and had nothing to give. Seeing how disappointed the fir tree was the angels descended and sat on its branches and casting their light as miniature stars. The baby Jesus was so entranced by the light of the angels on the fir tree that He declared that for the rest of time the fir tree should be decorated with lights and surrounded by gifts to bring joy to little children.

We know that Martin Luther (born 1483 – 1546) in Germany, the man who founded the protestant movement during the reformation decorated a fir tree with lights and small ornaments for his children so that he could inspire them with the wonder of Christ’s birth. Nobody is sure if Martin Luther invented the modern form of decorating the Christmas tree or if the Christmas tree was enjoying new found popularity. Certainly at the same time there are other reports of trees being decorated with fruits, cheeses, and nuts for the benefit of orphaned children.

Upside Down Christmas Tree

By the 1800s the tradition of decorating a fir tree at Christmas time was well established in the German speaking nations and in some of their neighboring principalities, and thousands of small factories existed that would manufacture small glass balls decorated with intricate designs and patterns to be hung from the tree. The tradition of decorating the Christmas tree didn’t arrive in the English speaking world until after the marriage of Queen Victoria and her German Prince Albert.

German and English settlers to the US in the 19h century brought their Christmas activities with them although puritan America resisted the traditions for some time, some American Christians still refusing to celebrate Christmas and decorate a Christmas tree to this day. The late 1800s gave rise to the birth of the commercialization of Christmas and the easy availability of fir trees, decorations, and lights as US department stores took to competing with one another for the best window display. The Christmas holiday season became one of their best income periods resulting in bigger and more colorful displays.

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History of Christmas

Christmas is the time of the year when Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and along with Easter is their most important event in the Christian calendar. In the 21st century the Christmas holiday season has become popular outside of the Christian faith, with many Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and even Muslims adopting the holiday aspect of Christmas.

Whilst Christ was born a little over two thousand years ago, the traditions of Christmas time go back a lot further, in fact the birth of Christ was superimposed onto older pagan ceremonies and traditions that go back at least to ancient Mesopotamian civilization and perhaps even further back to the first human settlements.

One of the oldest traditions such as burning the Yule log, a somewhat less popular tradition these days but still the subject of numerous carols or Christmas cards, dates back to the earliest times and was important to pagan people for symbolizing the birth of the Sun God and the end of the winter months. Different ancient cultures had different ceremonies, some would dance and sing around the log, others would huddle in their homes until the threat of evil Gods had passed.

Christmas Gifts

To truly understand the history of Christmas we need to look at the entire holiday rather than just the day of the 25th of December, for example the 12 days of Christmas, the Yule log, caroling, giving gifts, street processions, and seasonal holiday meals are all activities that pre-date the Christmas holiday season.

The 12 days of Christmas immortalized in a song of the same name was originally a Babylonian festival held around the winter solstice when the god Marduk, who was the supreme deity of the Babylon city-state, would battle the demons of the underworld for 12 days and nights until the sun returned.

The Roman festival of Saturnalia is believed to be derived from the Babylonian festival but was characterized by feating and debauchery, and a switching of roles between rulers and the ruled, in fact for the entire month of January Rome was often ruled by peasants whilst the aristocracy pretended to be their slaves and servants. The entire city would close for the month to allow everyone to participate.

At the time of the early Christian Church, the Roman Empire ruled most of the Mediterranean shores including the Holy Land. Religion was paganist and every part of the empire had its own Gods and celebrations, and if they were colorful enough these would often be adopted in other parts of the empire. Temples to new divinities would spring up regularly, almost fashionably.

Many Christians believe the 25th of December to be the actual day of Christ’s birth, in fact historians and Church leaders are divided on this with many believing Joshua (Yeshua in Ancient Hebrew) of Nazareth, now known as Jesus Christ was actually born in the month of March. In pre-Christian times the 25th of December coincided with the Babylonian celebration of Mithra’s birth, and in the Roman calendar was the first day of the Saturnalia festival.

Saint Andrew's Roman Catholic Church

Saint Andrew's Roman Catholic Church

In the 4th century the Roman Catholic Church had become concerned that the festival of Saturnalia and the celebration of Mithra’s birth weren’t showing signs of diminishing so it was decreed that the period would be known as the 12 days of Christmas beginning on the day of Christ’s birth and ending on the day of epiphany. In 350 AD Julius I, Bishop of Rome, settled on the 25th of December as the official date for celebrating Christ’s birth.

During the medieval ages feasting and dancing during the 12 Days of Christmas showed some signs that the Church hadn’t in fact been terribly successful, and whilst the switching of roles was long consigned to the history books, other aspects such as debauchery amongst the working classes was very much alive and well.

The most enduring image of Christmas for many people, and certainly most children is the idea of Santa Claus, Saint Nicholas, or Papa Noel bringing gifts and presents to good boys and girls all over the world. This too is an idea from Saturnalia that predates the birth of Christ and which the Catholic Church unsuccessfully tried to banish in favor of a more austere and reflective Christmas.

A more appealing story of the history of giving gifts at Christmas time comes from Bishop Nicholas of Myra who is the patron saint of children. Bishop Nicholas was never known to give gifts at Christmas time, instead he gave gifts when he noticed a need, for example the gold coins he threw in the window of the poor man’s home so that his daughters would have a dowry for their wedding.

After his death Nicholas was elevated to sainthood with December the 5th becoming his Saint’s day, and it is on this day in many parts of Europe that children receive some of their gifs, in countries like the Netherlands and Germany this used to be the day that children received all of their gifts until English traditions of gift giving on the 25th became better known.

Decorating the tree is a popular Christmas tradition that has it’s roots in Germany, some say that Martin Luther himself decorated a tree at Christmas time, but it wasn’t until Queen Victoria married her German Prince Albert that decorating the tree became popular in England and then the US.

In pre-Christian times people from Scandinavia and Germany would hang apples and candles from trees at the winter solstice as a reminder that spring would return soon. The tradition survived in Germany but at one time the practice had to be banned because the practice of cutting off the top of the tree to decorate decimated Germany’s forests.

German villagers used to make hand-made decorations and blown glass baubles for their trees, but some historians believe this tradition stems from Roman times and the festival of Saturnalia when Romans would decorate trees.

A Christmas Tree inside a House

Kissing under the Mistletoe is an ancient tradition from Northern Europe, enemies who passed one another under the mistletoe were required to lay down their arms for a day, but in modern times the tradition states that a man and a woman who meet under the mistletoe must kiss, and can do so without being disloyal to their spouses.

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History of the American Flag

The flag of the United States of America, also known as the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the Star Spangled Banner, or even the Red White and Blue, is the official standard under which Americans identify themselves to the world. The flag is composed of thirteen horizontal and alternating red and white stripes with a blue rectangular field in the canton (top left corner) that is filled with fifty five pointed white stars. The US flag is unique in the world and clearly identifies US soil or interests wherever it flies.

When the thirteen colonies of British North America south of Canada declared their independence from Kingdom of Great Britain on July the 4th 1776 the new United States of America had no flag or any other official emblems. Sadly, the peace and prosperity that George Washington and the Continental Congress hoped for was quickly dashed as Great Britain immediately declared them to be in rebellion and engaged her formidable military to put an end to the rebellion.

Needing a banner under which the fledgling US army and states militias could rally, a small group of congressmen including Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Lynch, and Benjamin Harrison created the first flag which became known as the Continental Colors. The Continental Colors were flown for the first time on New Years Day 1776 and was made up of thirteen red and white horizontal stripes and a British Union Flag in the canton.

American Flag History

The Continental Colors became the official flag of the US Navy in 1776 and was hoisted on all US maritime ships as well as in ports controlled by the United States. After the declaration of independence and the revolutionary war had begun in earnest Washington was advised that in fact an almost identical flag was being used by the East India Company. This in itself wasn’t a major problem but the use of the Union Jack in the canton led many British generals to falsely assume the colonists had surrendered and reverted to crown loyalty.

In 1777 the US Congress approved an act establishing a new flag for the United States which has since become known as the Betsy Ross flag and looked similar to the old Continental Colors but the canton was changed from the Union Flag to a blue field with thirteen white stars . Traditionally these were arranged in a circle but in fact there were no rules for their arrangement and many flagmakers arranged the stars in rows or other patterns that appealed to them.

The thirteen stars came to represent the Sates of the Union, the first thirteen being Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island. Some historians believe the thirteen red stripes of the Continental Colors were chosen to represent the original thirteen states which makes the explanation of the thirteen stars in the Stars and Stripes flag puzzling.

The Stars and Stripes Flag is also known as the Betsy Ross flag, after claims that Betsy Ross made the first American flag surfaced in 1870. Her grandson William Canby presented a paper to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in which he related a family story about George Washington, Robert Morris, and Colonel George Ross approaching Betsy Ross in her shop to make a flag for them. They had been appointed by Congress to form a flag committee to design and then procure the services of a flag maker to replace the existing Continental colors.

American Flags

Sadly, Betsy Ross’ story cannot be verified since nowhere in the Congressional Library, or amongst any of the personal letters or receipts of these four people is any mention of a flag committee or of Betsy Ross being asked to make that first flag. Historic evidence actually points in other directions. Prior to the Continental Colors being used there had been other flags in use within the colonies that bore 9 or 13 horizontal stripes with a canton in the top left corner so the inspiration for the design of the Stars and Stripes pre-dates any of the legends.

The most likely designer of the US flag is a man by the name of Francis Hopkinson who in 1780 designed the Great Seal of the United States, and in letters and invoices sent by him to the Continental Board of Admiralty he requested compensation for not just the Great Seal, but also for other designs including the flag of the USA. Francis Hopkinson had been active in the declaration of independence, actually being a signatory to the declaration and one of the first congressmen.

With the admission of other states into the union, the flag started to be less relevant, and by 1795 Congress ordered the design should be changed to reflect the new reality of 15 states, Vermont and Kentucky having joined in 1791 and 1792 respectively. The Stars and Stripes were changed to fifteen red and white horizontal stripes, and fifteen white stars in the canton. Unfortunately Tennessee joined the Union a year later making the new design outdated again, but it wasn’t until 1818 that the situation was rectified.

President Monroe, the fifth elected President of the United States signed in 1818 a new flag act returning the flag to thirteen red and white stripes in honor of the foresight shown by the founding states, and specified that the canton would from that day on contain as many white stars as there were states of the Union with new stars added on the 4th of July following their admission to the United States. The flag was updated in 1818 to include the states of Tennessee, Ohio, Luoisiana, Indiana, and Mississippi, but by 1820 had been updated again to include Illoinois, Alabama, and Maine.

This arrangement has worked very well and is an enduring symbol of the US that also reflects the equality of the states and their importance as united states in a single republic. In the 1950s when Alaska and Hawaii were about to be admitted to the Union a tremendous amount of excitement surrounding the layout of the 49 and 50 white stars resulted in President Eisenhower receiving over 1500 submission from members of the public.

Buzz Aldrin saluting the American flag on the moon

In 1912 an executive order from President Taft had fixed dimensions of the flag and decided that the stars were to be arranged in 6 rows of 8 columns with each star positioned so that one point always faced the top edge of the flag, but President Taft’s arrangement wouldn’t have allowed the inclusion of Alaska and Hawaii under the original rule set out from 1818 that each state should be represented by a single star in the canton. In the event the Army Institute of Heraldry, who are the keepers of the design and arbiters of its use decided on the current layout of 9 rows of 6 and 5 alternating columns.

An amusing story from the time was that a young man of 17 from Lancaster, Ohio took part in redesigning the US flag as a school project. Robert Heft painstakingly removed the 48 stars from an existing flag then made 100 new stars which he ironed onto the flag front and reverse in a pattern identical to the one eventually chosen. His teacher Stanley Pratt awarded Heft a B grade for the project, unfortunately Heft was no seamstress, but under discussion an agreement was reached that if Congress chose Heft’s design his grade would be upgraded. Before the high school year was out Alaska and Hawaii had joined the Union and President Eisenhower announced the new flag design. To Stanley Pratt’s credit he kept his word and Robert Heft was awarded an A.

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History of Twix Candy

The Twix candy bar is a butter cookie topped with a thick layer of caramel and the whole bar covered in dairy milk chocolate. Twix candy fingers are about four inches long, and half an inch thick, and two of these are packaged together in a single wrapper. The Twix brand is owned by Mars, Inc who are one of the largest confectionery manufacturers globally.

First created by Mars Limited in the UK in 1967 at the company’s Slough factory which is also where the current Mars Bar was invented by Forrest Mars Sr. in the 1930s. The Slough factory is also the home factory of the popular Starburst, Skittles, Snickers, and Topic brands also owned by Mars, Inc. In the years after its creation the Twix candy bar was released throughout Western Europe under the name Raider.

Twix Candy Bar split in 2

In 1979 the Twix candy bar was finally made available in the US sporting a gold colored wrapper and orange text, and was branded as the Twix Cookie Bar. Advertising for the Twix was always tastefully photographed with one of the bars snapped in two and the caramel from one piece curling slightly to show how soft and chewy the candy was. The first ads in the US adopted the slogan “Chocolate, Caramel and a Surprising Cookie Crunch!”

A period of continuing sales thru the early 1980s would have suggested Mars, Inc were happy with the performance of their Twix brand, in fact the candy bar wasn’t performing quite as well at retail and the hunt was on for a replacement or improvement which in 1983 came about with the peanut butter Twix. The caramel was removed and a soft peanut butter blend added. The market reacted very positively.

During 1991 Mars rebrand the Raider chocolate bar to Twix in line with their global branding but the the decision meets with public scorn. An advertising campaign with the slogan “Raider heißt jetzt Twix … sonst ändert sich nix” roughly translated as Raider is now Twix, nothing else changes. Public reaction saw the change as a cynical attempt to revive sales of an old product by rebranding it, so much so that the name Twix has become synonymous with cynical rebranding in both politics and the corporate world in Germany.

Bungled marketing as happened with the name change from Raider to Twix, or at least criticism of the Twix advertising campaigns continued thru most of the 1990s and into the new millennium over perceptions the Twix brand was being marketed at young teenage men with insatiable sexual appetites at the expense of women. Several womens movements described Twix advertisements as being similar to beer ads in that young men unlucky in the love stakes would be able to attract gorgeous women simply by eating a Twix candy bar. Slogans such as “Twix her!” and Let’s Twix it together”

Twix Candy Bar - Limited Edition

The 1990s were a period of great experimentation for Mars, Inc and the Twix brand in particular with several new varieties coming to market, some of which have remained in production, and helping to turn the Twix brand into one of the core chocolate confectionery brands of Mars, Inc globally. New flavors and varieties brought to market included cookies and cream, fudge, dark chocolate, white chocolate, mint slice, coffee, orange flavor, triple chocolate, and most recently Twix Java and Twix Cappuccino.

As part of the strengthening of the Twix brand and Mars, Inc’s overall product development Twix was chosen during the early 1990s as one of the brands that would be reworked to compete in the ice cream space with frozen Twix bars making their way into supermarket and mall ice cream vendor ice boxes. The individually wrapped bars were popular and lifted sales of Mars branded confectionery outside of their traditional markets.

The last major controversy surrounding the Twix brand occurred in 2007 when Mars, Inc in Europe started replacing the whey used in their candy bars with animal rennet leading to a large protests and negative press publicity against Mars, Inc by vegetarians who previously were loyal to Mars candy because it was vegetarian. In late 2007 Mars, Inc agreed to stop using animal rennet in their candy and revert to their old recipe but in 2008 a whistle blower confirmed that animal rennet was still being used despite assurances to the contrary.

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History of Citigroup

Citigroup, the world’s ninth largest bank by market capitalization, and largest by revenue in 2008 is a global banking giant headquartered in New York City in the United States of America. Citigroup has departments covering almost every major and minor niche within the finance sector including retail, commercial, investment, credit cards, institutional, insurance and assurance, and other financial services. Citigroup currently owns the world’s largest financial services network and operates in over 100 nations around the globe.

Tracing the actual beginnings of Citigroup is made difficult due to the hundreds of companies that form part of the group although its oldest operating division was founded in 1812 by a group of investors in New York City with $2 million of startup capital under the name City Bank of New York. The bank started as a merchant bank offering clearing services and finance. In 1865 when the US national banking system was created, the renamed National City Bank of New York was one of the first banks to join the system and make a contribution to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.

Citigroup Logo

In a financial services group as large as Citigroup is there are many other operating divisions that joined through mergers or acquisitions, counting amongst them Saloman Brothers founded in 1910, Smith Barney founded in 1873, Schröder and Co founded 1818, Benemex founded 1884, Bank Hadlowy founded 1870, and European American Bank founded 1921. Other divisions claim antecedents going back to the 19th century but are no longer traded under the original brand.

Despite the impressive pedigree of established financial industry names behind it, Citigroup is a new corporation having been created from the merger of Citicorp and Travelers Group in one of the largest corporate mergers in history. April 7th 1998 saw the boards and shareholders of both companies agree to a merger to maximize opportunities across a broader range of specialist niches than either company was able to support alone.

The merger created a single banking and financial services giant with market capitalization of $140bn and combines total assets of $700bn, as well as a network of offices spanning 100 countries collectively supporting 100 million banking customers. Sandy Weill, chairman of Travelers and John Reed, the chairman of Citicorp became joint chairmen and CEOs of the new Citigroup corporation.

A potential stumbling block to the Citibank/Travelers merger, the Glass-Steagal Act of 1933 in the USA was dismissed by the board of Citigroup as an act that would soon be repealed. The act was originally enacted during the depression of the early 1930s to provide regulation of the banking industry, specifically it forbade commercial and investment banks from operating under common ownership which during the depression years had been identified as a source of conflict of interest and fraud. In 1999 the Glass-Steagal act was repealed by the Clinton administration clearing the way for Citigroup to continue its merger without divestment.

Citigroup Center - Citi Headquarters

Starting 1999, Citigroup begins a process of consolidating its brand using the Citi prefix along with a division descriptor, Commercial Credit adopts the moniker CitiFinancial and all branches in the US and Canada are given a makeover. Also in 1999 Citigroup is one of the first, and certainly the largest banks to launch full Internet banking facilities to customers, an innovation that allowed Citibank branches to reorganize, reduce frontline staff, while at the same time increase personal services to customers who required it.

In 2000 Citigroup announces record revenues of $13bn, with every quarter up on market predictions. First half earnings were $6.6bn equating to $1.91 per share an increase of 28% on the previous years first six months. Year end revenue figures continued this trend leading to optimistic acquisitions including a takeover of Schroder and Co’s European investment banking business by Citigroup division Saloman Smith Barney and the takeover of Bank Handlowy w Warszawie SA of Poland. The following year Citigroup buys Mexico’s Banacci and merges their operations with Banamex, another Citigroup division.

Despite record revenue and large acquisitions Citigroup was not immune to the dot com market crash of 2002 having invested or loaned funds to several IT startups as well as bought shares in stock that subsequently lost all of its value. By the end of 2003 the repercussions had claimed Sandy Weill who stepped down as CEO but remained on the board until 2006.

Citigroups fortunes sadly haven’t improved with scandals affecting sharemarket confidence. In 2005 the Japanese Federal Services Authority ordered Citigroup’s private banking division to cease operations on the grounds they’d been offering services legally only permitted to be undertaken by securities companies. Whilst loss of earnings to Citigroup was only slight, it highlighted gross governance problems that soon appeared to be endemic within the corporation.

Around the same time Citygroup Global Markets, Chase Investment Services, and American Express Financial Services were collectively fined over $21million for violations of mutual fund sales by the National Association of Securities Dealers which had occurred in 2002/2003. The companies were found guilty of inadequately disclosing customer rights while selling Class B and Class C shares of mutual funds. In 2007 Citigroup were fined another $15million for using inaccurate sales materials in seminars about retirements savings plans with BellSouth employees.

In further scandals Citigroup were fined another $18million in refunds and fines after the California Attorney General accused Citigroup of theft against credit card customers by sweeping positive balances from accounts and placing the funds into a consolidated Citigroup account. An employee of Citigroup stumbled over the error and notified management, who ignored his report an continued to take funds not owed to them. Citigroup is one of the very few banks to face such relentless claims of poor governance and in some cases of theft, and the company’s share price has reflected the concern felt by the market.

In late 2008 Citigroup’s exposure to the sub-prime crisis in the US reached critical point and emergency government funding was required to avoid bankruptcy, a situation the US government believes would be catastrophic claiming that Citigroup is too big to fail. The market capitalization of Citigroup in late 2008 had fallen to just $6billion from highs in the hundreds of billions only a few years ago. In February 2009 the US government converted a $25billion loan into a 36% share in Citigroup and reached an agreement for a boardroom shakeup in its efforts to keep Citigroup afloat.

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History of Cheerios

Cheerios are a breakfast cereal made from puffed oats in a distinctive ‘O’ shape that have been popular with children and adults alike since the 1940s. The Cheerios brand is owned by General Mills, a US based cereal company and are also marketed by Nestle in the UK and as many as 130 countries where Nestle operate. Cheerios are available in a wide range of flavors and styles, and are advertised as a healthy nutritious breakfast.

19th century breakfasts were typically made up of fried eggs, sausages, bacon, perhaps with toast as well. A healthy diet wasn’t yet considered very important yet a number of medical professionals working in sanitariums had noticed their patients responded better to bowel and urinary tract problems, even to mood swings, if they ate a more balanced diet filled with vegetables and cereals. Unfortunately, cereals proved difficult to make into convenient meals and a number of experiments were attempted that would produce bite-sized cereal nuggets.

Cheerios

It wasn’t until the 20th century and modern food presses and pressure cookers that cereals were able to be used as the main ingredient. The first breakfast cereals such as corn flakes and grape nuts were marketed around the turn of the century and sold surprisingly well encouraging other mills and sanitariums to develop their own cereal brands, amongst them being General Mills which first entered the breakfast cereal market with Wheaties.

Cheerios, made from puffed oats were first released in 1941, but nearly didn’t happen at all. The inventor of Cheerios, Lester Borchardt and a team of people at General Mills had tried to invent a machine they could use to create puffed cereal such as puffed wheat and after spending a great deal of money and time on the technique without result they were told by Borchardt’s boss to quit the project. Borchardt was a headstrong employee who knew the idea was sound and decided to keep developing the machine. Two months later they were rewarded with success and General Mills had a new product.

Cheerios were marketed quite aggressively as Cheeri Oats, but another company was already using the name and after a short dispute General Mills management agreed in 1945 to change the name to Cheerios, a name it has kept to the present day. Beginning in the early 1940s, around the time the Cheerios brand was being marketed the company created a cartoon character named Cheeri O’Leary as its brand mascot. Television hadn’t reached critical mass yet so the character was used in both animated form and printed form proving popular with children.

Competition with Kelloggs who had deep pockets and a loyal following required innovative thinking, and General Mills under the direction of the company owner James Bell were inspired to sponsor a radio show aimed at children yet with a moral story to every episode, and by a happy coincidence the creator of the Lone Ranger was in need of a sponsor to get the show syndicated throughout the United States beginning in 1949. The association with the Lone Ranger endured for 20 years and helped propel Cheerios into the top spot as the most popular breakfast cereal.

Cheerios Box

In the early 1950s Cheerios developed a new character to replace Cheery O’Leary who had become dated. Television viewing numbers were at a point that Cheerios could now be marketed on TV exclusively resulting in the Cheerios Kid and Sue hitting the airwaves. Typically the ads would show Sue getting into a difficult situation and calling for help from the Cheerios Kid who would use a combination of muscle and intelligence to come up with a solution to her problem and in so doing reinforcing the message that Cheerios were a healthy breakfast.

Further advertising innovations invented by General Mills were the idea that the packaging for Cheerios needn’t contain only the cereal. Through the late 1940s and 1950s General Mills marketing department successfully co-branded boxes of Cheerios with the Disney company to offer exclusive discounts on comic books, and then as advertising for the newly launched Mickey Mouse Club in 1956. By 1961 the association with the Lone Ranger offered an opportunity to increase sales of Cheerios cereal with a joint release of Lone Ranger and Silver action figures inside the cereal box, an innovation that took the cereal world by storm and revolutionized product marketing.

The Cheerios brand was also used to good effect in the mid 1960s when its packaging was chosen as the main vehicle to promote a new social and charitable endeavor started by General Mills known as Project Head Start. A small percentage of the earnings received from the sale of every box of Cheerios was donated to the foundation with the goal of providing education and healthcare services to disadvantaged families in the US.

Aware that Cheerios were facing competition from new cereal brands that were sweeter and more colorful, Honey Nut Cheerios are added to the supermarket shelves in 1979, and heralding the start f new research into alternative flavors and varieties of Cheerios which saw the introduction of the Apple Cinnamon flavor in 1988, MultiGrain Cheerios in 1992, Frosted Cheerios in 1995, Millenios in 2000, and Berry Burst Cheerios in 2003.

Healthwise Cheerios have been well received, starting with claims from General Mills that Cheerios provide all of the “essential nutritional values of oatmeal”, a claim proven in 1988 when studies prove oat bran helps in the fight against high cholesterol. By 1999, and after a rigorous evaluation of all breakfast cereals, Cheerios is declared the only cereal able to help reduce cholesterol in populations needing a low fat diet and is endorsed by the Heart Foundation as a recommended breakfast.

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History of Strawberries

A strawberry is a small fleshy red fruit favored in desserts or eaten on its own and is usually sold in small baskets known as punnets. Strawberries contain no fat, are very low on calories, and are a rich source of vitamin B6, vitamin C, folic acid, potassium and fiber so are often included in dietary programs or given to children. The strawberry is part of the rose family of plants and is actually a herb, while the red fleshy part that we eat is actually part of the flower and isn’t a berry at all.

Strawberries are found growing natively in the Americas, Europe, and Asia, and varieties have been successfully grown in Africa and Australasia as well. The fat and juicy red varieties commonly sold today are all descended from varieties cultivated after the discovery of strawberries in North America, and then bred with varieties discovered in South America to increase their size and improve taste.

Chandler Strawberries

Chandler Strawberries

During Roman times the fruit was known by it’s latin name Fragra meaning fragrance, although in modern Italian it is known as fragola, but the name used in England by the nobility was the French word fraise until the common English name gained popularity from the late middle ages. The word strawberry is believed to come from the old english words ‘streaw’ and ‘berige’ joined together and linguists believe the word straw came into use from the straw-like runners that grow from the plant.

Popular legend has it that the word actually derives from the practice of farmers placing straw under the plant to prevent the fruit from touching the ground and becoming spoiled. Strawberries weren’t considered a major crop so often children from London and other towns would be allowed to pick the fruit themselves which they would tie onto pieces of straw to sell in the town markets yelling “straws of berries” to get attention. Many of the children weren’t educated and would mispronounce their call as strawberries.

In traditional Chinese medicine, probably from as long ago as the time of the Yellow Emperor who is known to have ruled China for most of the 26th century BC, and whose court physicians would use the leaves of the strawberry plant to make a weak tea that is thought to detoxify the body and aid in reducing the effects of aging.

Naturalists and historians are not certain when strawberries were first eaten by humans, certainly the varieties available in Europe and Asia where civilization and the art of writing was developed were small and not terribly sweet tasting so are never mentioned as a delicacy until Roman times. Cato the Elder, a Roman senator and literary author who lived around 234-149BC wrote that strawberries were served in bowls with water at festivals.

Pliny the Elder, also known as Gaius Plinius Secundus who lived between 23 and 79 AD, mentions strawberries as one of the native fruits of the Italian peninsula in his seminal encyclopedia ‘Naturalis Historia’ first published in 77AD. The fruit are not believed to have been terribly popular but nevertheless Pliny states they were taken to other parts of the empire by Roman settlers and traders.

Strawberries - Plant

St Hildegard of Bingen who was a medieval seer and visionary, and also head of a monastery on the banks of the Rhine river who wrote an important tome on natural healing. Her advice was actively sought throughout medieval Europe by popes, kings, and bishops and it was because of St Hildegard that strawberries went out of favor. Seeing a snake amongst the strawberries in the monastery garden that had just eaten a toad St Hildegard declared that strawberries should not be eaten by people because they were too easily contaminated by undesirable animals and would poison the human body with mucus that would fill the lungs leading to eventual death.

North American native people in Massachusetts were not farmers and would hunt or forage for what was available, and strawberries which they named wuttahimneash, roughly translated as berry of the heart, would eat strawberries as a favored dessert. White settlers who came into contact with native people would trade items like blankets and guns for food which wasn’t accessible to them, and by a happy coincidence strawberries were amongst the fruits offered quickly becoming a firm favorite that would be requested time and again. It wasn’t long until Massachusetts settlers were growing strawberries themselves for sale in their own markets.

By the middle of the 1700s the North American strawberry had been cross bred with the traditional European varieties and was becoming popular on the social scene not just as a fruit, but also as an ingredient of small desserts. A number of new varieties were developed for the sweetness of the taste and perfect size and coloring. Strawberry preserves were also reinvented becoming the precursors of todays jelly and jams.

Charles Linnaeus, a Swedish botanish and doctor of the 1700s prescribed a diet of only strawberries believing that rheumatic gout could be cured if strawberries were eaten every day. According to Linnaeus the leaves of the strawberry could be dried served in tea and would help cleanse the bowel and relive acid buildup. Evidence using modern medicine suggests none of this is true, the strawberry is nothing more than a tasty treat.

Madam Thérésa Tallien, a wealthy socialite and owner of a salon that offered clothing and fashionable fragrances in Napoleanic France was known to prepare a bath with sliced strawberries scattered in the water, which she claimed helped to keep her skin looking fresh and blemish free. She was greatly admired in Paris at the time and enormously influential, so much so that a number of salons experimented with strawberry water as a fragrance

During the late 20th century strawberry flavored beauty products have become popular leading to a substantial increase in the cultivation of strawberries with many products such as facial cleansers, shampoos, soaps, and moisturizers requiring high quantities of strawberries in direct comparison with the number used for desserts.

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History of Wal-Mart

Wal-Mart is a global discount retailer headquartered in Bentonville, a small city in Arkansas, USA. Wal-Mart is a public corporation, the largest public corporation by revenu, one of the biggest retailers in the world, and its stock is traded in several international stock exchanges. Sam’s Club and Marketside stores are operating divisions of Wal-Mart corporation, In some international markets Wal-Mart stores trade under local names, ASDA in the UK, Bompreço in Brazil, Mi Bodega or Superama in Mexico, or Seiyu in Japan.

The history of Wal-Mart reads like a curriculum vitae for the corporate founder Sam Walton, who started his discount store named Walton’s Five and Dime in 1950. Previously Walton had operated a Ben Franklin store in Newport, Arkansas that he franchised from 1944 until 1950, but then relocated to Bentonville, Arkansas in 1950 and continuing his association with Ben Franklin but renaming the store as Walton’s Five and Dime.

walmart-logos

By the late 1950s Walton owned a small network of Walton’s Five and Dime stores and had come to the realization that successful discount retailing didn’t just involve getting the best price from suppliers, but also meant passing those savings onto customers. Walton’s method contrasted starkly with his competition yet the higher volumes sold in Walton’s stores were evidence that he had found a model that would spur his company onto greater profits.

By 1962 Sam Walton owned 11 stores, and taking a huge gamble, he and his wife Helen reinvested everything they could spare into a new store at Rogers, Arkansas which became the very first Wal-Mart branded store. The concept was an immediate success leading to spectacular growth of the brand and 24 stores by 1967. In 1969 Sam Walton incorporated the stores as Wal-Mart Stores Inc., and in 1972 the company listed on the New York Stock Exchange and providing a cash injection allowing the company to expand to 125 stores by 1975, and 276 stores in 1980.

Incorporation was also good for Wal-Mart employees, many of whom were given stock options in return for loyalty to the company. In 1970 Sam Walton started selling shares in his company over the counter to customers. By 1971 Wal-Mart stock was worth $47, not enough to make millionaires of Walton’s associates and customers but by 1982 increasing to a staggering $49,875 per share, enough to pay for a college education for the kids, an ambition that many of Wal-Mart’s employees were claimed to have held.

Wal-Mart Store Front

Wal-Mart has been conservative with acquisitions, most company expansion coming from new growth, in fact Wal-Mart acquisitions have always been strategic in nature such as the first two takeovers, buying the Mohr Value Stores and Hutcheson Shoe Company in 1977, and then in 1981 buying Kuhn’s Big K Stores. It would be another 9 years until Wal-Mart would make another acquisition, this time purchasing The McLane Company.

The internal growth of Wal-Mart has largely come from the group’s many Wal-Mart stores, but in 1983 the group opened the first Sam’s Club, a membership based discount retailer of bulk goods. Customer reaction to Sam’s Club was initially quite reserved despite lower prices, with accusations the cynical plan to build a database of small business owners who were the primary market for the new brand. Despite the criticism an aggressive expansion program has seen the brand grow to over 700 outlets although from 2006 Sam’s Club is no longer only targeting small business.

Sam Walton remained with the company thru his life, continuing to visit stores and meet with employees even walking around the store with them as they completed their tasks. As a gesture of solidarity with employees Walton promised to do the hula wearing a hula skirt outside the NYSE on Wall Street if the company made a pre-tax profit of 8%, nobody is sure if the company was already projecting an 8% profit which would have made Walton’s gesture a simple publicity stunt, but in any event the employees got behind the goal and made it a reality. In 1992 Sam Walton was presented with the Medal of Freedom, the highest US civilian honor for services to American retail by President Bush Sr, and only a few weeks before he passed away at the age of 74. In 1998 Walton was listed in Time Magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.

Inside a Wal-Mart store

After his death Wal-Mart experienced several months of negative publicity as speculation mounted that Walton’s death and the appointment of his oldest son S. Robson Walton as chairman, and a lack of clear direction while the transition occurred would result in poor performance. Institutional shareholders played a wait and see game and Wal-Mart’s share price plunged but the uncertainty was short lived and by the end of 1992 had rebounded. By the turn of the century Wal-Mart had become the first retail company in history pass the $100 billion mark and reports sales of $118 billion.

Sales and profits continued to climb for Wal-Mart thru the early 21st century with no sign of any adverse affect from the weakening global economy but employee groups claim this is due to Wal-Mart’s policy of forcing off-the-clock work onto rostered employees who claim they are given too much work for their shift and told by management that overtime pay is out of the question. A number of class action suits have been brought against Wal-Mart which the company has vigorously defended and in many cases lost. Employee unions are severely restricted from operating within Wal-Mart so the full extent of the claims may never be known but by 2004 Wal-Mart had been ordered to pay fines and repay wages exceeding $300 million.

At the end of 2006 Wal-Mart owned 6,775 stores worldwide, had over 2 million employees, and generated nearly $350 billion is annual sales.

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